Human Sacrifice List
A viewset for viewing and editing Human Sacrifices.
GET /api/rt/human-sacrifices/?format=api&page=6
{ "count": 357, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/human-sacrifices/?format=api&page=7", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/human-sacrifices/?format=api&page=5", "results": [ { "id": 335, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": 1650, "year_to": 1777, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "The human sacrifice of low-status ingroup members was a necessary part of the king's annual temple rites dedicated to the war god Ku. The victims were sometimes members of an underclass known as kauwā (“outcasts”), but could also be anyone who had broken a kapu (Robert Hommon, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, March 2021). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B7ZLLKKX\">[Kirch 2010, p. 69]</a> In other cases, they were rival or rebellious chiefs, so that human sacrifice in Hawai‘i often served both religious and political purposes (Robert Hommon, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, March 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 336, "polity": { "id": 20, "name": "us_kamehameha_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1778, "end_year": 1819 }, "year_from": 1778, "year_to": 1803, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "The human sacrifice of low-status ingroup members was a necessary part of the king's annual temple rites dedicated to the war god Ku. The victims were sometimes members of an underclass known as kauwā (“outcasts”), but could also be anyone who had broken a kapu (Robert Hommon, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, March 2021); <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B7ZLLKKX\">[Kirch 2010, p. 69]</a> In other cases, they were rival or rebellious chiefs, so that human sacrifice in Hawai‘i often served both religious and political purposes (Robert Hommon, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, March 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 337, "polity": { "id": 20, "name": "us_kamehameha_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1778, "end_year": 1819 }, "year_from": 1804, "year_to": 1819, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "King Kamehameha ended the practice of human sacrifice and the cult of the war god Ku after conquering the island of Oahu in 1804 CE <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B7ZLLKKX\">[Kirch 2010, p. 30]</a> This was probably not due to Christian influence, as the first company of missionaries did not arrive in Hawai‘i until after his death (Robert Hommon, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, March 2021). It is more likely that Kamehameha, having unified the archipelago, had no further need to go to war and thus no need to dedicate a war temple with sacrificial victims (Robert Hommon, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, March 2021).<br>On the king’s death, though the customary rituals were otherwise performed according to tradition, no person was sacrificed to accompany him to the next world <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LI82XG3G\">[Levin 1968, p. 422]</a> , as had been done with his predecessors <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/12986e2d-54e5-428b-9636-95603f2e5c51/update/\">(NOZOTERO: King, J. 1809. The voyages of Captain James...)</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 338, "polity": { "id": 21, "name": "us_hawaii_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1820, "end_year": 1898 }, "year_from": 1820, "year_to": 1898, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "King Kamehameha ended the practice of human sacrifice and the cult of the war god Ku after conquering the island of Oahu in 1804 CE <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B7ZLLKKX\">[Kirch 2010, p. 30]</a> From the 1820s onwards, the Hawaiian elite converted to Christianity. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6XJ6HTI6\">[Kashay 2008]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 339, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": 1775, "year_to": 1885, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Human sacrifice seems to have taken place occasionally in Chuuk. Goodenough <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BAX6HMH7\">[Goodenough 2002, pp. 278-279]</a> writes of a ritual carried out before going to war, in which an enemy would be killed and his corpse placed facing towards the enemy settlement. The dead man’s spirit became a sooyénú, a “spirit alight”, and further offerings of war captives were made to it in order to ensure success in war. If not properly nourished with human victims, the sooyénú “might turn on its makers and ‘devour’ them” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BAX6HMH7\">[Goodenough 2002, p. 279]</a> Ethnographer Laurentius Bollig <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/54TJU54R\">[Bollig 1927, p. 35]</a> wrote that war captives would sometimes be offered to the god Paladiu. He also claimed <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/54TJU54R\">[Bollig 1927, p. 115]</a> that the Trukese cut and ate the bodies of war captives, but in order to \"cool their vengeance\" rather than as a form of sacrifice to the gods or other supernatural entities.<br>Christianity (which abhors human sacrifice) came to the island via Protestant missionaries in the 1880s, who were followed by Catholic missionaries after 1900 <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GD78HCEV\">[Balzer_Skoggard 1997]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 341, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": -1400, "year_to": -1151, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Though artefacts such as sharp obsidian blades found in ritual contexts suggest that autosacrifice (specifically, letting one's own blood) was likely already practiced as early as the Tierras Largas phase <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB69SPCS\">[Marcus_C._Grove_Joyce 1999]</a> , Joyce <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JPXCWSSG\">[Joyce 2009, p. 118]</a> suggests that human sacrifice formed part of a set of ritual practices that emerged much later, around 700 BCE.", "description": "" }, { "id": 342, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": -1150, "year_to": -701, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Though artefacts such as sharp obsidian blades found in ritual contexts suggest that autosacrifice (specifically, letting one's own blood) was likely already practiced as early as the Tierras Largas phase <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB69SPCS\">[Marcus_C._Grove_Joyce 1999]</a> , Joyce <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JPXCWSSG\">[Joyce 2009, p. 118]</a> suggests that human sacrifice formed part of a set of ritual practices that emerged much later, around 700 BCE.", "description": "" }, { "id": 343, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": -700, "year_to": -501, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Monument 3 at the site of San Josè Mogote depicts a naked man whose heart has been removed. Based on comparisons with Mesoamerican iconography of the 16th century, the man is likely a war captive. It is possible that Zapotecs at this time specifically raided neighboring communities in order to offer captives as human sacrifices to gods (David Carballo, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021); <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB69SPCS\">[Marcus_C._Grove_Joyce 1999, p. 130]</a> Because Monument 3 formed part of a public architectural complex, and based again on comparison with later polities, human sacrifice was likely restricted to elites, who may have used it to mediate between the gods and the human realm <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JPXCWSSG\">[Joyce 2009, pp. 125-126]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 344, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": -500, "year_to": -301, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "One of the earliest and most prominent monuments at Monte Alban is the Danzantes Wall, which depicts 300 carvings of human figures, likely memorializing either a single public event or several. Because these men are naked, with their eyes closed, their bodies splayed and bleeding, and in many missing parts, many, e.g. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB69SPCS\">[Marcus_C._Grove_Joyce 1999, p. 154]</a> interpret them as captives slain to manifest Monte Alban's military power. However, Winter <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/afbca2be-5925-4faa-bb92-1f809a8c2aa4/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Winter, Marcus. 2011. \"Social Memory and...)</a> suggest that some of these men may actually be Monte Alban elites who have performed rituals acts of autosacrifice (most notably, genital bloodletting), though he also notes that four of the carvings depict severed heads, suggesting human sacrifice by decapitation. Indeed, Winter goes on to note that archaeological data such as skull-less burials from across Southern Mesoamerica supports the notion that taking and displaying trophy hunts was an established practice at this time. A depression that would have allowed rainwater to collect in front of the Danzantes Wall suggests a connection between the rituals of autosacrifice and human sacrifice it portrays, and gods associated with storms and/or water, which were prominent across Mesoamerican religious traditions, including ones that emerged in Oaxaca.", "description": "" }, { "id": 345, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": -300, "year_to": -101, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "One of the earliest and most prominent monuments at Monte Alban is the Danzantes Wall, which depicts 300 carvings of human figures, likely memorializing either a single public event or several. Because these men are naked, with their eyes closed, their bodies splayed and bleeding, and in many missing parts, many, e.g. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB69SPCS\">[Marcus_C._Grove_Joyce 1999, p. 154]</a> interpret them as captives slain to manifest Monte Alban's military power. However, Winter <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/979bf9a1-656c-4db3-a4ca-5869cddaf692/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Winter, Marcus. 2011. \"Social Memory and...)</a> suggest that some of these men may actually be Monte Alban elites who have performed rituals acts of autosacrifice (most notably, genital bloodletting), though he also notes that four of the carvings depict severed heads, suggesting human sacrifice by decapitation. Indeed, Winter goes on to note that archaeological data such as skull-less burials from across Southern Mesoamerica supports the notion that taking and displaying trophy hunts was an established practice at this time. A depression that would have allowed rainwater to collect in front of the Danzantes Wall suggests a connection between the rituals of autosacrifice and human sacrifice it portrays, and gods associated with storms and/or water, which were prominent across Mesoamerican religious traditions, including ones that emerged in Oaxaca.", "description": "" }, { "id": 346, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": -100, "year_to": 199, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "One of the earliest and most prominent monuments at Monte Alban is the Danzantes Wall, which depicts 300 carvings of human figures, likely memorializing either a single public event or several. Because these men are naked, with their eyes closed, their bodies splayed and bleeding, and in many missing parts, many, e.g. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB69SPCS\">[Marcus_C._Grove_Joyce 1999, p. 154]</a> interpret them as captives slain to manifest Monte Alban's military power. However, Winter <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/4dacb5fd-4e82-41fe-93e3-333b0a8d2660/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Winter, Marcus. 2011. \"Social Memory and...)</a> suggest that some of these men may actually be Monte Alban elites who have performed rituals acts of autosacrifice (most notably, genital bloodletting), though he also notes that four of the carvings depict severed heads, suggesting human sacrifice by decapitation. Indeed, Winter goes on to note that archaeological data such as skull-less burials from across Southern Mesoamerica supports the notion that taking and displaying trophy hunts was an established practice at this time. A depression that would have allowed rainwater to collect in front of the Danzantes Wall suggests a connection between the rituals of autosacrifice and human sacrifice it portrays, and gods associated with storms and/or water, which were prominent across Mesoamerican religious traditions, including ones that emerged in Oaxaca.", "description": "" }, { "id": 347, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": 200, "year_to": 499, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "One of the earliest and most prominent monuments at Monte Alban is the Danzantes Wall, which depicts 300 carvings of human figures, likely memorializing either a single public event or several. Because these men are naked, with their eyes closed, their bodies splayed and bleeding, and in many missing parts, many, e.g. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB69SPCS\">[Marcus_C._Grove_Joyce 1999, p. 154]</a> interpret them as captives slain to manifest Monte Alban's military power. However, Winter <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/7348fa90-4a6d-416a-bb8f-ebcbc9e53f12/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Winter, Marcus. 2011. \"Social Memory and...)</a> suggest that some of these men may actually be Monte Alban elites who have performed rituals acts of autosacrifice (most notably, genital bloodletting), though he also notes that four of the carvings depict severed heads, suggesting human sacrifice by decapitation. Indeed, Winter goes on to note that archaeological data such as skull-less burials from across Southern Mesoamerica supports the notion that taking and displaying trophy hunts was an established practice at this time. A depression that would have allowed rainwater to collect in front of the Danzantes Wall suggests a connection between the rituals of autosacrifice and human sacrifice it portrays, and gods associated with storms and/or water, which were prominent across Mesoamerican religious traditions, including ones that emerged in Oaxaca.", "description": "" }, { "id": 348, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": 500, "year_to": 899, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "One of the earliest and most prominent monuments at Monte Alban is the Danzantes Wall, which depicts 300 carvings of human figures, likely memorializing either a single public event or several. Because these men are naked, with their eyes closed, their bodies splayed and bleeding, and in many missing parts, many, e.g. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB69SPCS\">[Marcus_C._Grove_Joyce 1999, p. 154]</a> interpret them as captives slain to manifest Monte Alban's military power. However, Winter <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/894bea98-a120-476a-9dfb-4fed78d0c869/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Winter, Marcus. 2011. \"Social Memory and...)</a> suggest that some of these men may actually be Monte Alban elites who have performed rituals acts of autosacrifice (most notably, genital bloodletting), though he also notes that four of the carvings depict severed heads, suggesting human sacrifice by decapitation. Indeed, Winter goes on to note that archaeological data such as skull-less burials from across Southern Mesoamerica supports the notion that taking and displaying trophy hunts was an established practice at this time. A depression that would have allowed rainwater to collect in front of the Danzantes Wall suggests a connection between the rituals of autosacrifice and human sacrifice it portrays, and gods associated with storms and/or water, which were prominent across Mesoamerican religious traditions, including ones that emerged in Oaxaca.", "description": "" }, { "id": 349, "polity": { "id": 532, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5", "long_name": "Monte Alban V", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": 900, "year_to": 1520, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Seventeenth-century Spanish sources describe a ceremony to honor \"the patron deity of the city-state\", which included the sacrifice of war captives <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/512dd47d-f59f-4bde-a544-3c788fbd0db8/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Lind, M. 2015. Ancient Zapotec Religion....)</a> Mixtec codices from this period provide iconographic evidence of human sacrifice carried out by priests, suggesting that the practice continued in the region up until the arrival of the Spanish (David Carballo, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021); <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B5U9U3LP\">[Paddock 1985]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 351, "polity": { "id": 84, "name": "es_spanish_emp_1", "long_name": "Spanish Empire I", "start_year": 1516, "end_year": 1715 }, "year_from": 1516, "year_to": 1700, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "HS strongly proscribed in Christianity <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 352, "polity": { "id": 22, "name": "us_woodland_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Early Woodland", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -150 }, "year_from": -600, "year_to": -151, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Peter Peregrine (pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, February 2021) has confirmed that human sacrifice at this time was more likely to be absent.", "description": "" }, { "id": 353, "polity": { "id": 23, "name": "us_woodland_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Middle Woodland", "start_year": -150, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": -150, "year_to": 299, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Peter Peregrine (pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, February 2021) has confirmed that human sacrifice at this time was more likely to be absent.", "description": "" }, { "id": 354, "polity": { "id": 24, "name": "us_woodland_3", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland I", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 450 }, "year_from": 300, "year_to": 449, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Peter Peregrine (pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, February 2021) has confirmed that human sacrifice at this time was more likely to be absent.", "description": "" }, { "id": 355, "polity": { "id": 25, "name": "us_woodland_4", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland II", "start_year": 450, "end_year": 600 }, "year_from": 450, "year_to": 599, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Peter Peregrine (pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, February 2021) has confirmed that human sacrifice at this time was more likely to be absent.", "description": "" }, { "id": 356, "polity": { "id": 26, "name": "us_woodland_5", "long_name": "Cahokia - Late Woodland III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": 600, "year_to": 749, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Peter Peregrine (pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, February 2021) has confirmed that human sacrifice at this time was more likely to be absent.", "description": "" }, { "id": 357, "polity": { "id": 27, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": 750, "year_to": 899, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Peter Peregrine (pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, February 2021) has confirmed that human sacrifice at this time was more likely to be absent.", "description": "" }, { "id": 358, "polity": { "id": 34, "name": "us_emergent_mississippian_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Emergent Mississippian II", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1049 }, "year_from": 900, "year_to": 1049, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Peter Peregrine (pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, February 2021) has confirmed that human sacrifice at this time was more likely to be absent.", "description": "" }, { "id": 359, "polity": { "id": 32, "name": "us_cahokia_1", "long_name": "Cahokia - Lohman-Stirling", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1199 }, "year_from": 1055, "year_to": 1199, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Mound 72 at the site of Cahokia has yielded the remains of several people, suggesting both the burial of elites and accompanying sacrificial victims. Dental and isotope analysis by Thompson, Headman and Slater <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YJ9F5LJ7\">[Thompson_Hedman_Slater 2015]</a> suggest that most of the victims were in-group members, and that some may have been out-group members. Differential treatment of the dead also suggests that the sacrificial victims were lower status.", "description": "" }, { "id": 360, "polity": { "id": 33, "name": "us_cahokia_2", "long_name": "Cahokia - Moorehead", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1275 }, "year_from": 1200, "year_to": 1274, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Given archaeological evidence for general continuity with the Lohmann-Stirling phase, we are inferring that human sacrifice is likely to have been practiced at this time, though there is no direct evidence for it. This was confirmed by Peter Peregrine (2016, pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni).", "description": "" }, { "id": 361, "polity": { "id": 28, "name": "us_cahokia_3", "long_name": "Cahokia - Sand Prairie", "start_year": 1275, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": 1275, "year_to": 1399, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Given archaeological evidence for general continuity with the Lohmann-Stirling phase, we are inferring that human sacrifice is likely to have been practiced at this time, though there is no direct evidence for it. This was confirmed by Peter Peregrine (2016, pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni).", "description": "" }, { "id": 362, "polity": { "id": 29, "name": "us_oneota", "long_name": "Oneota", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1650 }, "year_from": 1400, "year_to": 1639, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "The fact that there is no archaeological evidence for human sacrifice in the region in this period <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GGDHC6GN\">[Hall_Townsend_Sharp 2004, p. 98]</a> , despite the fact that human sacrifice was clearly practiced in previous periods, suggests that it likely was no longer practiced at this time. This was confirmed by Peter Peregrine (pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, February 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 363, "polity": { "id": 30, "name": "us_early_illinois_confederation", "long_name": "Early Illinois Confederation", "start_year": 1640, "end_year": 1717 }, "year_from": 1640, "year_to": 1717, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Because our main sources on Illinois culture are Christian missionaries, it seems reasonable to infer that, if they did not describe instances of human sacrifice, which was abhorrent to their beliefs, then it almost certainly was not practiced. This was confirmed by Peter Peregrine (2016, pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni).", "description": "" }, { "id": 364, "polity": { "id": 101, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_1", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Early", "start_year": 1566, "end_year": 1713 }, "year_from": 1566, "year_to": 1713, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "There is good ethnohistoric evidence for HS (Peter Peregrine, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, February 2021). Early reports by European missionaries describe the torture, burning and/or cannibalistic consumption of prisoners of war on the part of the Haudenosaunee. Among the northern Haudenosaunee in the historical period, there were several rationales for this, including to gain prestige, to take revenge for the killing of a member of one’s own community, but also to offer the victim to the Sun or the god of war <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UJI67GAK\">[Trigger 1976, pp. 145-146]</a> Some of the European accounts report the belief that “in some instances” when Haudenosaunee warriors “had been remiss in torturing and eating prisoners”, “the Sun was thought to be offended and to withhold his favour” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4K2E649F\">[Waugh 1916, p. 134]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 365, "polity": { "id": 102, "name": "us_haudenosaunee_2", "long_name": "Haudenosaunee Confederacy - Late", "start_year": 1714, "end_year": 1848 }, "year_from": 1714, "year_to": 1848, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P~A", "comment": "Ethnographic literature ceases to mention human sacrifice and adjacent practices after the 18th century. Indeed, some sources suggest that, by the mid-18th century, pigs' heads were used instead of the heads of enemies in what had once been cannibalistic ceremonies <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BV3EXTT3\">[Fenton 1953, pp. 106-107]</a> Moreover, it is worth noting that European sources continued to describe other instances of violence on the part of the Haudenosaunee, including, again, the torture of war captives, as well as scalp-taking <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BV3EXTT3\">[Fenton 1953, p. 165]</a> , suggesting that if the Haudenosaunee had continued to practice forms of human sacrifice, they would have been described as well. However, it remains unclear when exactly the Haudenosaunee ceased practicing human sacrifice: therefore, we consider this period as one of transition from a time when human sacrifice was more likely to have been practiced, to one where it likely no longer was.", "description": "" }, { "id": 366, "polity": { "id": 77, "name": "pe_cuzco_1", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": 1, "year_to": 199, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "There is no clear evidence for HS in the Cuzco region in these periods (Alan Covey, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin, November 2020). There is a substantial sample of human remains from the first half of the first millennium CE, but no bioarchaeological study that we aware of has identified potential sacrificial victims among them (Alan Covey, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin, November 2020).", "description": "" }, { "id": 367, "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": 200, "year_to": 499, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "There is no clear evidence for HS in the Cuzco region in these periods (Alan Covey, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin, November 2020). There is a substantial sample of human remains from the first half of the first millennium CE, but no bioarchaeological study that we aware of has identified potential sacrificial victims among them (Alan Covey, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin, November 2020).", "description": "" }, { "id": 368, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": 500, "year_to": 649, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "There is no clear evidence for HS in the Cuzco region in these periods (Alan Covey, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin, November 2020). There is a substantial sample of human remains from the first half of the first millennium CE, but no bioarchaeological study that we aware of has identified potential sacrificial victims among them (Alan Covey, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin, November 2020).", "description": "" }, { "id": 369, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": 650, "year_to": 999, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Sacrifice of children and adults at Conchopata (beyond the Cuzco region, but within the Wari Empire), possibly within D-shaped temples;some body parts turned into trophies and displayed <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DHEV5VLP\">[Tung_Knudson 2010, p. 62]</a> Some trophy skulls have also been found in Wari contexts in the Cuzco region (Alan Covey, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin, November 2020). Wari iconography includes frequent representations of “the Sacrificer,” holding knife and human head <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CN383NK7\">[Cook_Benson_Cook 2001, p. 158]</a> : HS likely to have been endorsed by official cult.", "description": "" }, { "id": 370, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": 1000, "year_to": 1249, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "There is no clear evidence for HS in the Cuzco region in this period (Alan Covey, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin, November 2020).", "description": "" }, { "id": 371, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": 1250, "year_to": 1399, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "There is no clear evidence for HS in the Cuzco region in this period (Alan Covey, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin, November 2020).", "description": "" }, { "id": 372, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": 1400, "year_to": 1531, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "HS was present in various forms but on a much smaller scale than that claimed by chroniclers after the Spanish Conquest. Occasional sacrifice of children chosen for their purity and beauty on mountain peaks as offerings to apu deities (ritual known as qhapaq ucha) <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U5NHUMFB\">[d'Altroy 2014, pp. 278-279]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L4KFWXCT\">[Dillehay_Verano 1995, p. 190]</a> The children tended to be drugged and left to die of exposure (Alan Covey, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, 2017). Emergency HS (itu), usually of children or adolescents, also performed in case of earthquakes, eclipses of epidemics <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U5NHUMFB\">[d'Altroy 2014, p. 277]</a> Some chroniclers mention retainer sacrifice at the funerals of elite men <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L4KFWXCT\">[Dillehay_Verano 1995, p. 196]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U5NHUMFB\">[d'Altroy 2014, p. 306]</a> Some claims for calendrical HS at the Inti Raymi festival, but these are not well supported (Alan Covey, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, 2017).", "description": "" }, { "id": 373, "polity": { "id": 435, "name": "co_neguanje", "long_name": "Neguanje", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 1050 }, "year_from": 250, "year_to": 1049, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "There is no mention of human sacrifice in documentary evidence from the sixteenth century pertaining to groups living in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, as reviewed by archaeologists and anthropologists. Nor has archaeological evidence emerged: no altars, blood residue, marks on human remains, instruments (sacrificial weapons and paraphernalia, maces, altars, etc.) or objects depicting or related to human sacrifice have been found at the c. 250 documented sites. According to Santiago Giraldo (pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, 2017), the evidence conclusively points to the absence of human sacrifice among the Tairona and other Prehispanic societies inhabiting the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta at the time the Spanish arrived. Likewise, pre-Tairona material remains, including excavated burials, give no indication that human sacrifice was practised in earlier periods.", "description": "" }, { "id": 374, "polity": { "id": 436, "name": "co_tairona", "long_name": "Tairona", "start_year": 1050, "end_year": 1524 }, "year_from": 1050, "year_to": 1524, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "There is no mention of human sacrifice in documentary evidence from the sixteenth century pertaining to groups living in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, as reviewed by archaeologists and anthropologists. Nor has archaeological evidence emerged: no altars, blood residue, marks on human remains, instruments (sacrificial weapons and paraphernalia, maces, altars, etc.) or objects depicting or related to human sacrifice have been found at the c. 250 documented sites. According to Santiago Giraldo (pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, 2017), the evidence conclusively points to the absence of human sacrifice among the Tairona and other Prehispanic societies inhabiting the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta at the time the Spanish arrived. Likewise, pre-Tairona material remains, including excavated burials, give no indication that human sacrifice was practised in earlier periods.", "description": "" }, { "id": 375, "polity": { "id": 196, "name": "ec_shuar_1", "long_name": "Shuar - Colonial", "start_year": 1534, "end_year": 1830 }, "year_from": 1534, "year_to": 1830, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Ecuadorian-period sources do not include human sacrifice in accounts of Shuar ritual practices. They do mention the taking of enemy heads in order to shrink them into tsantsa, used in rituals of the same name. According to Harner, the tsantsa feasts were carried out to control and harness the power of the muisak, that is, the “avenging soul” that forms inside a person’s body when they are killed by another person. If a feast was not performed correctly, a muisak could escape from its head and cause a quarrel that would result in a murder; if a feast was performed correctly, the muisak transmitted its power to the wife and sister of the head-taker, increasing their success in crop production and the raising of domesticated animals. After the feast, the muisak was liberated, so that it could return to its original village. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S4TZZFHB\">[Harner 1972, pp. 143-147]</a> The killing was therefore done in order to gain a “supernatural benefit”, according to our definition of HS. However, we have coded inferred absent because the moment of killing itself was not ritualized: raiders killed their victims in ambush attacks, for example with guns, and then cut off their heads to take them back home. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9MJD4JKS\">[Steel 1999]</a> We are inferring the absence of human sacrifice backwards to include the period of Spanish contact. Indeed, given Spanish descriptions of human sacrifice in other regions of the New World at this time, it seems likely that, if they had observed it among the Shuar, they would have described it in relation to them as well.", "description": "" }, { "id": 377, "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "fr_beaker_eba", "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": -2300, "year_to": -2201, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Evidence for HS comes from Pömmeltes, a ritual enclosure in Germany <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HI6NULLY\">[Spatzier_Bertemes 2018, pp. 661-664]</a> Skeletal material of a woman and several children, with some individuals showing perimortem skull and rib trauma, was thrown into shafts dug into a ring ditch. The gender and age of the victims, associated material in shafts (e.g., smashed vessels, faunal remains, axe), and the position of skeletons in this sacred monumental site, plus separate depositions of subadult skulls, point to ritual killing. These “deviant burials” can be contrasted with the normative burials of high-status males in the ring enclosure. Monumental henges were a broader phenomenon in Bronze Age Europe. It is possible that this type of activity, including the HS element, was part of the Bell Beaker culture more generally, but Spatzier et al. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LAEWV4ED\">[Spatzier_et_al 2014]</a> note that the subject as a whole is controversial.", "description": "" }, { "id": 380, "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": -1000, "year_to": -901, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "We find no evidence of HS in Paris Basin;however, Jelínek <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FH9T7ASD\">[Jelínek 2012]</a> points to numerous potential cases in the Hallstatt culture of Eastern Europe, extending as far as “eastern France,” in which human bones were cut postmortem, split, charred, and/or dumped. These cases appear inconclusive and more suggestive of cannibalism than HS per se.<br>For the Hallstatt culture outside of Paris Basin, a clearer case is found in three lakeside villages of the Circum-Alpine area, where the skulls of children who died from blows to the head were buried around the perimeter of settlements during a period of lake encroachment <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9X42V3LW\">[Menotti_Jennings_Gollnisch-Moos 2014]</a> For Thrace, Sîrbu <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/E6W3FBBZ\">[Sîrbu_Simion 1997]</a> discusses 24 skeletons found in “unusual” archaeological contexts such as sanctuaries or fortifications, and especially attributable to the Babadag culture (late 11th to 8th century BCE);while acknowledging the difficulty of interpretation, Sîrbu finds it likely that HS accounts for at least some of these cases. The unit being coded here is the Hallstatt tradition as a whole, so we have coded present.", "description": "" }, { "id": 381, "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": -900, "year_to": -701, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "We find no evidence of HS in Paris Basin;however, Jelínek <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FH9T7ASD\">[Jelínek 2012]</a> points to numerous potential cases in the Hallstatt culture of Eastern Europe, extending as far as “eastern France,” in which human bones were cut postmortem, split, charred, and/or dumped. These cases appear inconclusive and more suggestive of cannibalism than HS per se. For Thrace, the observations of Sîrbu <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/dd95d12b-8464-4dcb-bab5-d4e9cb789a50/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Sîrbu, Valeriu. 1997. “Sacrifices humaines...)</a> are relevant to this period also: 24 skeletons found in “unusual” archaeological contexts such as sanctuaries or fortifications, and especially attributable to the Babadag culture (late 11th to 8th century BCE). We have coded for scholarly disagreement to acknowledge differences of interpretation.", "description": "" }, { "id": 382, "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": -900, "year_to": -701, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "We find no evidence of HS in Paris Basin;however, Jelínek <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FH9T7ASD\">[Jelínek 2012]</a> points to numerous potential cases in the Hallstatt culture of Eastern Europe, extending as far as “eastern France,” in which human bones were cut postmortem, split, charred, and/or dumped. These cases appear inconclusive and more suggestive of cannibalism than HS per se. For Thrace, the observations of Sîrbu <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/dd95d12b-8464-4dcb-bab5-d4e9cb789a50/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Sîrbu, Valeriu. 1997. “Sacrifices humaines...)</a> are relevant to this period also: 24 skeletons found in “unusual” archaeological contexts such as sanctuaries or fortifications, and especially attributable to the Babadag culture (late 11th to 8th century BCE). We have coded for scholarly disagreement to acknowledge differences of interpretation.", "description": "" }, { "id": 384, "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600 }, "year_from": -700, "year_to": -601, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Davidson <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6W7CZE5E\">[Davidson 1993, pp. 12-13]</a> citing Brisson and Hatt <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LAFMS669\">[Brisson_Hatt 1953]</a> mentions the possibility of HS at Aulnay-aux-Planches (Marne), but Vanmoerkerke <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D35F5IU9\">[Vanmoerkerke_Achard-Corompt_Riquier 2013]</a> describes the 1953 work as tendentious and the case is not widely accepted as HS.<br>In the Hallstatt culture outside of Paris Basin, there is a well-known example from the Býčí Skála Cave in Moravia, Czech Republic <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/83VCK896\">[Golec 2017]</a> Dated to 800-450 BCE, the deposits there include two skulls which were carefully cut postmortem, one in such a way as to create a “cup” from the skull. An additional decapitated head was placed in a bronze vessel. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/e5b32f9a-94d3-46ab-b592-af311c471dd7/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Golec, Martin, and Pavel Fojtík. 2017. The...)</a> with fig. 133.", "description": "" }, { "id": 385, "polity": { "id": 180, "name": "it_latium_ia", "long_name": "Latium - Iron Age", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -580 }, "year_from": -1000, "year_to": -717, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Latium in this period was home to both the Latial and Southern Villanovan (i.e., early Etruscan) cultures. HS is archaeologically attested for Tarquinia, an Etruscan city in Latium. For example, during the eighth century, a newborn was beheaded and placed under a wall of the Area Sacra (a monumental complex), and a male skeleton showing blunt trauma to the head was buried with few grave goods towards the edge of the area <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U7TLA6KL\">[Jovino 2010, p. 166]</a> Bonghi Jovino interprets these finds as individuals killed to propitiate a deity <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U7TLA6KL\">[Jovino 2010, p. 166]</a> Prominent scholars suspect that HS existed during this period due to the large number of later references to traditional practice in Roman sources, the apparent presence of HS in Etruscan culture, and the presence of HS elsewhere in the Mediterranean <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CKJR2C9T\">[Wiseman_Dupeyron 2017]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P98VU6QI\">[Holloway_Dupeyron 2017]</a> However, it should be noted that ancient descriptions of HS in early Rome served polemical purposes <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JAK6GASD\">[Rives 1995]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 387, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": -716, "year_to": -510, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Carandini's excavations <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/0b511947-a5f6-4379-b129-abca47ac3d6a/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Carandini, Andrea. 1997. “La nascità di Roma:...)</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/c91d7e28-9cac-4ba8-bc7a-7cdb929d7254/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Carandini, Andrea. 2012. Rome: Day one. Trans....)</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/75b0eb49-69e8-4422-b048-f4e29344410d/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Carandini, Andrea. 2012. Rome: Day one. Trans....)</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/460a0e3d-f611-44d8-bebb-58a3c610e293/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Carandini, Andrea. 2012. Rome: Day one. Trans....)</a> suggest construction sacrifices during the eighth and seventh centuries but his interpretation is controversial <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MMLM6M4E\">[Lomas 2018, p. 43]</a> The ritual combat of the rex nemorensis, is likely to have existed by this period, but the evidence is insufficient to be certain. Literary evidence points to the practice of funerary HS by the Etruscans, who were influential on the Latial culture at this period <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M8AKJQJZ\">[Cornell 2012, pp. 151-172]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 388, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": -716, "year_to": -510, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Carandini's excavations <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/0b511947-a5f6-4379-b129-abca47ac3d6a/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Carandini, Andrea. 1997. “La nascità di Roma:...)</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/c91d7e28-9cac-4ba8-bc7a-7cdb929d7254/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Carandini, Andrea. 2012. Rome: Day one. Trans....)</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/75b0eb49-69e8-4422-b048-f4e29344410d/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Carandini, Andrea. 2012. Rome: Day one. Trans....)</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/460a0e3d-f611-44d8-bebb-58a3c610e293/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Carandini, Andrea. 2012. Rome: Day one. Trans....)</a> suggest construction sacrifices during the eighth and seventh centuries but his interpretation is controversial <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MMLM6M4E\">[Lomas 2018, p. 43]</a> The ritual combat of the rex nemorensis, is likely to have existed by this period, but the evidence is insufficient to be certain. Literary evidence points to the practice of funerary HS by the Etruscans, who were influential on the Latial culture at this period <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M8AKJQJZ\">[Cornell 2012, pp. 151-172]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 389, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": -3550, "year_to": -3301, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "New types of mortuary treatments appear in Naqada II, involving dismemberment <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/af23daf3-6a2f-43cf-b531-da2e6ef1b11b/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Wengrow, David and John Baines 2004. ‘Images,...)</a> , sometimes in conjunction with evidence for violent death <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZA8THP39\">[Van_Dijk_Bremmer 2007, p. 137]</a> Some archaeologists, e.g. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CAXCX549\">[Crubézy_Midant-Reynes 2000]</a> think these remains should be interpreted as those of sacrificial victims. Some individuals interred at cemetery HK43, Hierakonpolis during Naqada II had cut-marks on their cervical vertebrae, in some cases pointing to decapitation <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/STXKCK5E\">[Dougherty_et_al 2008]</a> , and five males from Hierakonpolis appear to have been scalped <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/STXKCK5E\">[Dougherty_et_al 2008, pp. 309-310]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/STXKCK5E\">[Dougherty_et_al 2008, p. 216]</a> HK43 was a non-elite cemetery, however, and the bodies with cut-marks on their cervical vertebrae do not cluster around higher-status burials as would be the expected pattern for retainer sacrifice <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/STXKCK5E\">[Dougherty_et_al 2008, p. 327]</a> Alternative explanations for these Predynastic mortuary treatments include the execution of criminals or rebels, ritual processing of human remains relating to ancestor cults, or even practices intended to protect against vampires <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/STXKCK5E\">[Dougherty_et_al 2008, p. 310]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/STXKCK5E\">[Dougherty_et_al 2008, p. 331]</a> Stronger evidence comes from the funerary complex surrounding Tomb 16 at cemetery HK6, Hierakonpolis. This consisted of a central wealthy burial surrounded by at least 12 human tombs and 10 tombs containing wild and domestic animals <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B9VHQWH9\">[Friedman_et_al 2011]</a> Some see this as an early case of retainer sacrifice, but it is not proven that all burials were simultaneous, and some researchers are sceptical <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSMJ25Y8\">[Arbel_et_al 2015, pp. 25-26]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SSKX2GV4\">[Stevenson 2016, p. 437]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 390, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": -3550, "year_to": -3301, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "New types of mortuary treatments appear in Naqada II, involving dismemberment <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/af23daf3-6a2f-43cf-b531-da2e6ef1b11b/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Wengrow, David and John Baines 2004. ‘Images,...)</a> , sometimes in conjunction with evidence for violent death <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZA8THP39\">[Van_Dijk_Bremmer 2007, p. 137]</a> Some archaeologists, e.g. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CAXCX549\">[Crubézy_Midant-Reynes 2000]</a> think these remains should be interpreted as those of sacrificial victims. Some individuals interred at cemetery HK43, Hierakonpolis during Naqada II had cut-marks on their cervical vertebrae, in some cases pointing to decapitation <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/STXKCK5E\">[Dougherty_et_al 2008]</a> , and five males from Hierakonpolis appear to have been scalped <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/STXKCK5E\">[Dougherty_et_al 2008, pp. 309-310]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/STXKCK5E\">[Dougherty_et_al 2008, p. 216]</a> HK43 was a non-elite cemetery, however, and the bodies with cut-marks on their cervical vertebrae do not cluster around higher-status burials as would be the expected pattern for retainer sacrifice <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/STXKCK5E\">[Dougherty_et_al 2008, p. 327]</a> Alternative explanations for these Predynastic mortuary treatments include the execution of criminals or rebels, ritual processing of human remains relating to ancestor cults, or even practices intended to protect against vampires <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/STXKCK5E\">[Dougherty_et_al 2008, p. 310]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/STXKCK5E\">[Dougherty_et_al 2008, p. 331]</a> Stronger evidence comes from the funerary complex surrounding Tomb 16 at cemetery HK6, Hierakonpolis. This consisted of a central wealthy burial surrounded by at least 12 human tombs and 10 tombs containing wild and domestic animals <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B9VHQWH9\">[Friedman_et_al 2011]</a> Some see this as an early case of retainer sacrifice, but it is not proven that all burials were simultaneous, and some researchers are sceptical <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CSMJ25Y8\">[Arbel_et_al 2015, pp. 25-26]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SSKX2GV4\">[Stevenson 2016, p. 437]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 391, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": -3300, "year_to": -3101, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": true, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "HS is well attested for the next period, Dynasty 1, and it may have begun in Naqada III, or continued from Naqada II, but this is uncertain (John Baines, pers. comm., Oxford workshop, January 2017).", "description": "" } ] }