Human Sacrifice List
A viewset for viewing and editing Human Sacrifices.
GET /api/rt/human-sacrifices/?format=api&page=4
{ "count": 357, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/human-sacrifices/?format=api&page=5", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/human-sacrifices/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": -303, "year_to": -194, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Buddhism, Jainism and various Hindu sects spread across South Asia;HS was forbidden in all these traditions. Mauryan ruler Ashoka the Great also upheld a pre-existing proscription of animal sacrifice <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AEZWUJHF\">[von_Falkenhausen_Loewe_Shaughnessy 1999, pp. 152-153]</a> , so it is safe to assume that HS would have had no official sanction.", "description": "" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": -145, "year_to": -96, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "HS was not practiced within Hellenistic cultures ( Jennifer Larson, pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni, 2016). Buddhism, which forbids killing sentient beings <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JYBZZEYQ\">[Schmidt-Leukel 2006, p. 64]</a> , also remained important in the region during this period, and influenced Indo-Greek elites <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CPB53L79\">[Jansari_Mairs 2021, p. 39]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 127, "name": "af_kushan_emp", "long_name": "Kushan Empire", "start_year": 35, "end_year": 319 }, "year_from": 35, "year_to": 230, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "At different times during Kushan history, and in different combinations, Kushan emperors patronized Greek religion, Hinduism (specifically, Śiva worship), Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R5J9XNZ8\">[Harmatta_et_al 1994]</a> None of these traditions evinced support for HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5C6ZW8B\">[Boyce 1983]</a> ; ( Alessandro Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, June 2017; Jennifer Larson, pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni, 2016).", "description": "" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": 862, "year_to": 1192, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 134, "name": "af_ghur_principality", "long_name": "Ghur Principality", "start_year": 1025, "end_year": 1215 }, "year_from": 1193, "year_to": 1206, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": 1207, "year_to": 1339, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 136, "name": "pk_samma_dyn", "long_name": "Sind - Samma Dynasty", "start_year": 1335, "end_year": 1521 }, "year_from": 1340, "year_to": 1519, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": 1687, "year_to": 1720, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a> Hinduism also present.", "description": "" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 137, "name": "af_durrani_emp", "long_name": "Durrani Empire", "start_year": 1747, "end_year": 1826 }, "year_from": 1748, "year_to": 1826, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 384, "name": "in_mahajanapada", "long_name": "Mahajanapada era", "start_year": -600, "end_year": -324 }, "year_from": -600, "year_to": -325, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "It is possible that HS was occasionally practiced during Vedic times, before this period <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RKRDCUNZ\">[Parpola_Bremmer 2007]</a> Rituals involving HS are sometimes referred to in both early and late Vedic texts (e.g. the Hymn to Puruṣasūkta, RV 10.90), but they may not always refer to physical practices ( Alessandro Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, June 2017). Already in the ninth-century Brahmanas, concerns were expressed about blood sacrifices and how to replace them (Barbara Holdrege and Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, June 2021). Later Vedic texts also show increasing support for non-violence (ahiṃsā) towards animals and humans ( Alessandro Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, June 2017).<br>The era of the Mahājanapadas, beginning c. 600 BCE, marks the end of the Vedic period and the emergence of the Upanisadic tradition, which emphasized the “interiorization of Vedic rituals through meditation” (Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, June 2021). At the same time, the Brahmanic beliefs contained in the Vedic corpus were also being challenged by the new śrāmaṇa ascetic movements, which stressed ahiṃsā even more strongly <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SPYD4A86\">[Houben_Houben_Van_Kooij 1999, pp. 124-125]</a> Combined, these trends make it unlikely that HS was practiced with the approval of ruling elites.<br>There is no good archaeological evidence for HS during the period of the Mahājanapadas.", "description": "" }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 88, "name": "in_post_mauryan_k", "long_name": "Post-Mauryan Kingdoms", "start_year": -205, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": -205, "year_to": -101, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Buddhism, Jainism and various Hindu sects continued to be influential <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9GNE5ZH8\">[Shattuck 1999, p. 35]</a> ;HS was forbidden in all these traditions. Houben <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SPYD4A86\">[Houben_Houben_Van_Kooij 1999]</a> has argued that in the post-Mauryan period there was a resurgence of support within some Brahmanic circles for HS, but his position is not generally accepted, and there is no evidence that such rites were actually performed (Barbara Holdrege and Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, June 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": -100, "year_to": 203, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "These were Hindu kingdoms and empires. HS would not have been sanctioned by the ruling elite or associated religious specialists (Barbara Holdrege and Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, June 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": 286, "year_to": 335, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "These were Hindu kingdoms and empires. HS would not have been sanctioned by the ruling elite or associated religious specialists (Barbara Holdrege and Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, June 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": 451, "year_to": 540, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "These were Hindu kingdoms and empires. HS would not have been sanctioned by the ruling elite or associated religious specialists (Barbara Holdrege and Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, June 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 92, "name": "in_badami_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Badami", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 753 }, "year_from": 543, "year_to": 753, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "These were Hindu kingdoms and empires. HS would not have been sanctioned by the ruling elite or associated religious specialists (Barbara Holdrege and Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, June 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": 757, "year_to": 973, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "These were Hindu kingdoms and empires. HS would not have been sanctioned by the ruling elite or associated religious specialists (Barbara Holdrege and Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, June 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 94, "name": "in_kalyani_chalukya_emp", "long_name": "Chalukyas of Kalyani", "start_year": 973, "end_year": 1189 }, "year_from": 974, "year_to": 1055, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "These were Hindu kingdoms and empires. HS would not have been sanctioned by the ruling elite or associated religious specialists (Barbara Holdrege and Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, June 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346 }, "year_from": 1192, "year_to": 1253, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "These were Hindu kingdoms and empires. HS would not have been sanctioned by the ruling elite or associated religious specialists (Barbara Holdrege and Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, June 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327 }, "year_from": 1280, "year_to": 1310, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "These were Hindu kingdoms and empires. HS would not have been sanctioned by the ruling elite or associated religious specialists (Barbara Holdrege and Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, June 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": 1337, "year_to": 1646, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "These were Hindu kingdoms and empires. HS would not have been sanctioned by the ruling elite or associated religious specialists (Barbara Holdrege and Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, June 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 111, "name": "in_achik_1", "long_name": "Early A'chik", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": 1775, "year_to": 1867, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "The Garo (also known as A’chik) people practiced headhunting in the precolonial period <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SZA479N8\">[Playfair 1909, p. 78]</a> However, this is not automatically HS according to our definition, which requires that the act of killing be ritualized and carried out for supernatural benefit. <br>According to Sinha <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZVWG9FPE\">[Sinha 1966, p. 22]</a> , A'chik funerary rites sometimes required a human sacrifice. A man was captured from another village and sacrificed near the funeral pyre;his spirit accompanied that of the dead man and served him in the afterlife <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZVWG9FPE\">[Sinha 1966, p. 22]</a> <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZVWG9FPE\">[Sinha 1966, p. 22]</a> There are reports that among the neighbouring Tiwa people in the Amsai Valley, HS was performed annually to placate local spirits and provide the village with prosperity (Manjil Hazarika, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, May 2021). Overall, it is likely that human sacrifice was occasionally practiced by several groups in the Assam and Meghalaya hills (Manjil Hazarika, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, May 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 462, "name": "tj_sarasm", "long_name": "Sarazm", "start_year": -3500, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": -3500, "year_to": -2001, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "It is unknown whether HS was practiced at ancient Sarazm: very few burials have been found ( Burzine Waghmar, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021). The Royal Necropolis at the site of Gonur Depe, a few hundred kilometres to the west in present-day Turkmenistan, was found to contain rich chariot burials with sacrificed draught animals, drivers and other caravan members, dating to the late third millennium BCE <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TALZW3W5\">[Wicks_Reddish 2023]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/LWFPXIFW\">[Lyonnet_et_al 2021, p. 45]</a> However, this code refers only to the site of Sarazm.", "description": "" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": -1800, "year_to": -1401, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "There is considerable evidence for animal sacrifice in the Andronovo culture <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/P7IJPJXK\">[Kuz'mina 2007, p. 33]</a> , but none that we are aware of for HS. The only example of possible HS in the Bronze Age for this world region comes from the Bustan necropolis in southern Uzbekistan <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7IX2T4KF\">[Bendezu-Sarmiento 2007, p. 202]</a> , but this is considered to belong to the Sapalli culture.", "description": "" }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 464, "name": "uz_koktepe_1", "long_name": "Koktepe I", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": -1400, "year_to": -1000, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "We are not aware of any evidence for HS in these periods.", "description": "" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 465, "name": "uz_khwarasm_1", "long_name": "Ancient Khwarazm", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -521 }, "year_from": -999, "year_to": -751, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "We are not aware of any evidence for HS in these periods.", "description": "" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 466, "name": "uz_koktepe_2", "long_name": "Koktepe II", "start_year": -750, "end_year": -550 }, "year_from": -750, "year_to": -600, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "We are not aware of any evidence for HS in these periods.", "description": "" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": -248, "year_to": -130, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "HS was not practiced within Hellenistic cultures ( Jennifer Larson, pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni, 2016).", "description": "" }, { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 467, "name": "af_tocharian", "long_name": "Tocharians", "start_year": -129, "end_year": 29 }, "year_from": -129, "year_to": 29, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Religions in the region of Central Asia conquered by the Yuezhi-Kushans included the worship of gods of the Hellenistic pantheon, Buddhism, Śiva worship, and Zoroastrianism <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UE4KPYQ8\">[Liu 2001, p. 280]</a> HS is generally proscribed in all of these traditions <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5C6ZW8B\">[Boyce 1983]</a> ; ( Jennifer Larson, pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni, 2016); <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JYBZZEYQ\">[Schmidt-Leukel 2006, p. 64]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": 582, "year_to": 603, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Retainer HS: Turkic elite funerary customs sometimes involved the sacrifice of slaves or war captives <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/823Z6QEK\">[Baldick 2012, p. 42]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VTFS4932\">[Golden 1992, p. 130]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 253, "polity": { "id": 468, "name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711 }, "year_from": 604, "year_to": 711, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Nestorian Christianity, heterodox Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism were all practiced in the Sogdian city-states of this period <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8P724M2D\">[de_la_Vaissière_Ward 2005, pp. 88-89]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/bcc8eb01-2070-4fce-9624-64db39c7a678/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Vaissière, Étienne de la. 2011. “Sogdiana...)</a> ; ( Burzine Waghmar, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021). All of these traditions proscribed HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/F5C6ZW8B\">[Boyce 1983]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JYBZZEYQ\">[Schmidt-Leukel 2006]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 254, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "uz_samanid_emp", "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": 876, "year_to": 990, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 255, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": 991, "year_to": 1089, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 257, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "start_year": 1227, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": 1263, "year_to": 1361, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Probable retainer HS, possible HS in connection with war preparations. Although Islam and Buddhism were sponsored by the rulers of the Chagatai Khanate <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD\">[Atwood_Internet_Archive 2004, p. 87]</a> , Mongol funeral customs sometimes involved HS on the deaths of members of the elite <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K9796MI7\">[Roux 1963, p. 117]</a> Retainer HS is reported by Persian sources on the deaths of Chinggis Khan and his sons Ögedei Khan and Hülegü Khan, and Armenian chronicles also claim that “great men” among the Mongols were buried with their servants <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/12bd82c7-7b6f-4784-bc65-0f840d5c227b/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Elverskog, Johan. 2015. “Whatever Happened...)</a> Chagatai Khan, the first ruler of this polity, was another son of Chinggis. There is no source claiming that his funeral involved HS, but he and subsequent rulers and officials maintained Mongol customs and practices <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RMCRG9CQ\">[Biran_et_al 2009]</a> ; ( Burzine Waghmar, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021). Other forms of HS may also have been practiced: during Chinggis Khan’s reign, human victims were reportedly offered to the spirits (sülde) inhabiting sacred battle standards (tuq) during the process of mobilizing armies for war <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IN4T7ASX\">[Buell 2003, p. 275]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 258, "polity": { "id": 469, "name": "uz_janid_dyn", "long_name": "Khanate of Bukhara", "start_year": 1599, "end_year": 1747 }, "year_from": 1599, "year_to": 1747, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 259, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": -1400, "year_to": -400, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "There is no evidence for HS in the region before the earliest Xiongnu graves, c. 400 BCE ( Nikolay Kradin, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021). No secondary burials indicating possible retainer HS have been found in graves of the Slab Grave culture ( Nikolay Kradin, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021).", "description": "" }, { "id": 260, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": -399, "year_to": -300, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Xiongnu groups appear to have practiced retainer HS. There are reports of the sacrifice of concubines, slaves and prisoners of war at the funerals of important men from the time of the Xiongnu Empire (c. 200 BCE) onwards <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K9796MI7\">[Roux 1963, p. 62]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/823Z6QEK\">[Baldick 2012, p. 24]</a> This is supported by archaeological evidence from the Xiongnu cemetery of Derestuy in Russia, dating to the last century BCE <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQ433W8G\">[Miniaev 2007, pp. 72-76]</a> This features several burial complexes in which a central barrow is surrounded by satellite burials. Most central barrows contained a coffin embedded within a stone cist, as well as grave goods. In contrast, the subsidiary burials contained the remains of infants, women and young adults, without any grave goods and showing signs of violent death <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZZUI2GS\">[Miniaev 2001, pp. 3-9]</a> The excavator believes these people were killed to accompany their masters to the grave <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZZUI2GS\">[Miniaev 2001, pp. 3-9]</a> It appears that the deaths were contemporaneous with the deposition of the adult males in the cists <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZZUI2GS\">[Miniaev 2001, pp. 3-9]</a> Another Xiongnu burial from the first century BCE in the Egyin Gol Valley, Mongolia contained a man and woman interred simultaneously;an intact hyoid bone was found in a wooden box at the head of the man’s coffin <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/55S3IQDI\">[Murail_et_al 2000, p. 534]</a> This has been interpreted as the woman’s tongue. It is possible that she was sacrificed to accompany her husband in death, and that her tongue was severed either before or after her death as an offering <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/55S3IQDI\">[Murail_et_al 2000, p. 535]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 261, "polity": { "id": 272, "name": "mn_hunnu_emp", "long_name": "Xiongnu Imperial Confederation", "start_year": -209, "end_year": -60 }, "year_from": -209, "year_to": -60, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Xiongnu groups appear to have practiced retainer HS. There are reports of the sacrifice of concubines, slaves and prisoners of war at the funerals of important men from the time of the Xiongnu Empire (c. 200 BCE) onwards <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K9796MI7\">[Roux 1963, p. 62]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/823Z6QEK\">[Baldick 2012, p. 24]</a> This is supported by archaeological evidence from the Xiongnu cemetery of Derestuy in Russia, dating to the last century BCE <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQ433W8G\">[Miniaev 2007, pp. 72-76]</a> This features several burial complexes in which a central barrow is surrounded by satellite burials. Most central barrows contained a coffin embedded within a stone cist, as well as grave goods. In contrast, the subsidiary burials contained the remains of infants, women and young adults, without any grave goods and showing signs of violent death <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZZUI2GS\">[Miniaev 2001, pp. 3-9]</a> The excavator believes these people were killed to accompany their masters to the grave <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZZUI2GS\">[Miniaev 2001, pp. 3-9]</a> It appears that the deaths were contemporaneous with the deposition of the adult males in the cists <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZZUI2GS\">[Miniaev 2001, pp. 3-9]</a> Another Xiongnu burial from the first century BCE in the Egyin Gol Valley, Mongolia contained a man and woman interred simultaneously;an intact hyoid bone was found in a wooden box at the head of the man’s coffin <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/55S3IQDI\">[Murail_et_al 2000, p. 534]</a> This has been interpreted as the woman’s tongue. It is possible that she was sacrificed to accompany her husband in death, and that her tongue was severed either before or after her death as an offering <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/55S3IQDI\">[Murail_et_al 2000, p. 535]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 262, "polity": { "id": 274, "name": "mn_hunnu_late", "long_name": "Late Xiongnu", "start_year": -60, "end_year": 100 }, "year_from": -59, "year_to": 99, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Xiongnu groups appear to have practiced retainer HS. There are reports of the sacrifice of concubines, slaves and prisoners of war at the funerals of important men from the time of the Xiongnu Empire (c. 200 BCE) onwards <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K9796MI7\">[Roux 1963, p. 62]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/823Z6QEK\">[Baldick 2012, p. 24]</a> This is supported by archaeological evidence from the Xiongnu cemetery of Derestuy in Russia, dating to the last century BCE <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TQ433W8G\">[Miniaev 2007, pp. 72-76]</a> This features several burial complexes in which a central barrow is surrounded by satellite burials. Most central barrows contained a coffin embedded within a stone cist, as well as grave goods. In contrast, the subsidiary burials contained the remains of infants, women and young adults, without any grave goods and showing signs of violent death <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZZUI2GS\">[Miniaev 2001, pp. 3-9]</a> The excavator believes these people were killed to accompany their masters to the grave <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZZUI2GS\">[Miniaev 2001, pp. 3-9]</a> It appears that the deaths were contemporaneous with the deposition of the adult males in the cists <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PZZUI2GS\">[Miniaev 2001, pp. 3-9]</a> Another Xiongnu burial from the first century BCE in the Egyin Gol Valley, Mongolia contained a man and woman interred simultaneously;an intact hyoid bone was found in a wooden box at the head of the man’s coffin <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/55S3IQDI\">[Murail_et_al 2000, p. 534]</a> This has been interpreted as the woman’s tongue. It is possible that she was sacrificed to accompany her husband in death, and that her tongue was severed either before or after her death as an offering <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/55S3IQDI\">[Murail_et_al 2000, p. 535]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 263, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": 100, "year_to": 250, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Archaeological evidence for HS in the Xianbei Confederation is lacking ( Nikolay Kradin, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021). Wei’s <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QF7M4X8G\">[Wei 2012]</a> extensive study of Xianbei tombs does not mention it. The practice of animal sacrifice, however, is well attested. Oxen, sheep and horses were frequently killed as part of funerary rituals, and accompanied other grave goods <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QF7M4X8G\">[Wei 2012, p. 159]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 264, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": 300, "year_to": 551, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "No evidence for HS in the Rouran Khaganate has been found ( Nikolay Kradin, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021). Rouran customs included the sacrifice of cattle and sheep as part of an ancestor cult <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K9796MI7\">[Roux 1963, p. 120]</a> The khagans and nobles supported Buddhism from the sixth century CE, which promotes non-violence <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JYBZZEYQ\">[Schmidt-Leukel 2006, p. 64]</a> However, there are several examples of polities in this part of the world where Buddhism was supported by elites and HS rites nevertheless sometimes took place.", "description": "" }, { "id": 265, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": 583, "year_to": 630, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Retainer HS: Turkic elite funerary customs sometimes involved the sacrifice of slaves or war captives <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/823Z6QEK\">[Baldick 2012, p. 42]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VTFS4932\">[Golden 1992, p. 130]</a> ; ( Nikolay Kradin, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021). One envoy from the Eastern Roman Empire reported witnessing the sacrifice of four “Hunnic captives” and several horses at Yabgu Khagan’s funerals <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VTFS4932\">[Golden 1992, p. 130]</a> Baldick <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/823Z6QEK\">[Baldick 2012, p. 42]</a> confirms this, explaining that slaves were often sacrificed in large numbers, with the mission to convey a message to the deceased. Sometimes, these also included relatives, concubines and servants, and the number could reach as many as 20–100 people <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K9796MI7\">[Roux 1963, p. 170]</a> Buddhism, which strictly prohibits HS, gained traction in the Western Turkic polities, for instance in Tokharistan <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3NWT33RB\">[Beckwith 2009, p. 115]</a> However, although a variety of religions were practiced including Manichaeism and Christianity, Tengric shamanism remained one of the most prominent influences.", "description": "" }, { "id": 266, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": 684, "year_to": 744, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Retainer HS: Turkic elite funerary customs sometimes involved the sacrifice of slaves or war captives <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/823Z6QEK\">[Baldick 2012, p. 42]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VTFS4932\">[Golden 1992, p. 130]</a> ; ( Nikolay Kradin, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021). One envoy from the Eastern Roman Empire reported witnessing the sacrifice of four “Hunnic captives” and several horses at Yabgu Khagan’s funerals <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VTFS4932\">[Golden 1992, p. 130]</a> Baldick <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/823Z6QEK\">[Baldick 2012, p. 42]</a> confirms this, explaining that slaves were often sacrificed in large numbers, with the mission to convey a message to the deceased. Sometimes, these also included relatives, concubines and servants, and the number could reach as many as 20–100 people <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K9796MI7\">[Roux 1963, p. 170]</a> Buddhism, which strictly prohibits HS, gained traction in the Western Turkic polities, for instance in Tokharistan <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3NWT33RB\">[Beckwith 2009, p. 115]</a> However, although a variety of religions were practiced including Manichaeism and Christianity, Tengric shamanism remained one of the most prominent influences.", "description": "" }, { "id": 268, "polity": { "id": 439, "name": "mn_shiwei", "long_name": "Shiwei", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 1000 }, "year_from": 841, "year_to": 907, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "We are not aware of any direct evidence for HS among the Shiwei, but their social organization and culture is poorly known in general ( Nikolay Kradin, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021). Other groups living roughly in the same region, including the Xiongnu, Mongols [who may have descended from the Shiwei <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD\">[Atwood_Internet_Archive 2004, p. 502]</a> ], and Turkic nomads, are known to have practiced HS occasionally <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/823Z6QEK\">[Baldick 2012, p. 42]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD\">[Atwood_Internet_Archive 2004, p. 13]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 269, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": 907, "year_to": 1125, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Although Khitan rulers supported Buddhism and much of the population was Muslim <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XIGJN3NR\">[Rogers 2012, p. 227]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD\">[Atwood_Internet_Archive 2004, p. 316]</a> , it seems that retainer HS took place during the early period. Widows of khagans were reportedly buried with their husbands until the death of Abaoji/T’ai-tsu (926 CE), whose widow refused to follow him to the grave and condemned the practice <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7PMQRGNH\">[Wittfogel_Feng 1949, pp. 200-201]</a> However, hundreds of men were buried with him <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7PMQRGNH\">[Wittfogel_Feng 1949, p. 222]</a> Emperor Jingzong took several people to the grave with him in 983, including his favourite courtier <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7PMQRGNH\">[Wittfogel_Feng 1949, p. 582]</a> Recent archaeological discoveries also suggest that construction HS was practiced. “Sacrificial pits” containing animal and human remains were discovered at a royal building complex at Shangjing, one of the Khitan capitals <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHABCZS7\">[CGTN 2018]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KTIHB2CH\">[Institute_of_Archaeology,_Chinese_Academy_of_Social_Sciences 2019]</a> Some of the human remains show cut-marks that may indicate violent death [Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2019]. The sacrifices appear to date to the very end of the Liao Dynasty [Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences 2019].", "description": "" }, { "id": 270, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": 1126, "year_to": 1205, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "In the Mongol Empire, HS was practiced in order to expel or placate spirits;these rites by supported by the state ( Nikolay Kradin, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021; Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin and Agathe Dupeyron, Oxford workshop 2017). Funerary customs sometimes involved HS on the deaths of members of the elite <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K9796MI7\">[Roux 1963, p. 117]</a> Retainer HS is reported by Persian sources on the deaths of Chinggis Khan and his sons Ögedei Khan and Hülegü Khan, and Armenian chronicles also claim that “great men” among the Mongols were buried with their servants <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/543684b9-ed79-4913-b48d-0060efff696d/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Elverskog, Johan. 2015. “Whatever Happened...)</a> Other forms of HS were also practiced: during Chinggis Khan’s reign, human victims were reportedly offered to the spirits (sülde) inhabiting sacred battle standards (tuq) during the process of mobilizing armies for war <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IN4T7ASX\">[Buell 2003, p. 275]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 271, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": 1206, "year_to": 1367, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "In the Mongol Empire, HS was practiced in order to expel or placate spirits;these rites by supported by the state ( Nikolay Kradin, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021; Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin and Agathe Dupeyron, Oxford workshop 2017). Funerary customs sometimes involved HS on the deaths of members of the elite <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K9796MI7\">[Roux 1963, p. 117]</a> Retainer HS is reported by Persian sources on the deaths of Chinggis Khan and his sons Ögedei Khan and Hülegü Khan, and Armenian chronicles also claim that “great men” among the Mongols were buried with their servants <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/9c0c8a87-7c6d-4690-9afa-af785adc6a5c/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Elverskog, Johan. 2015. “Whatever Happened...)</a> Other forms of HS were also practiced: during Chinggis Khan’s reign, human victims were reportedly offered to the spirits (sülde) inhabiting sacred battle standards (tuq) during the process of mobilizing armies for war <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IN4T7ASX\">[Buell 2003, p. 275]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 272, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": 1368, "year_to": 1580, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "In the Mongol Empire, HS was practiced in order to expel or placate spirits;these rites by supported by the state ( Nikolay Kradin, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021; Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin and Agathe Dupeyron, Oxford workshop 2017). Funerary customs sometimes involved HS on the deaths of members of the elite <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K9796MI7\">[Roux 1963, p. 117]</a> Retainer HS is reported by Persian sources on the deaths of Chinggis Khan and his sons Ögedei Khan and Hülegü Khan, and Armenian chronicles also claim that “great men” among the Mongols were buried with their servants <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/3900a1fe-d408-4008-82bf-bab6352df07f/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Elverskog, Johan. 2015. “Whatever Happened...)</a> Other forms of HS were also practiced: during Chinggis Khan’s reign, human victims were reportedly offered to the spirits (sülde) inhabiting sacred battle standards (tuq) during the process of mobilizing armies for war <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IN4T7ASX\">[Buell 2003, p. 275]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 273, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": 1581, "year_to": 1689, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Buddhism was known among the Mongols well before the late sixteenth century, but it was not until 1580 that Altan Khan initiated the “Second Conversion,” which aimed to eradicate the practice of shamanism and HS along with it <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD\">[Atwood_Internet_Archive 2004, pp. 490-492]</a> ; ( Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin and Agathe Dupeyron, Oxford workshop 2017).", "description": "" }, { "id": 274, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": 1695, "year_to": 1745, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "The strong influence of Buddhism in the Zunghar Khanate counterweighted Mongol tradition, and HS was not practiced <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJXN6MZD\">[Atwood_Internet_Archive 2004, pp. 490-492]</a> ; ( Vesna Wallace, pers. comm. to Peter Turchin and Agathe Dupeyron, Oxford workshop 2017). However, human sacrifices continued in the wider region long after the conversion to Buddhism: they were still practiced among nineteenth-century princely Mongols <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K9796MI7\">[Roux 1963, p. 171]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 275, "polity": { "id": 194, "name": "ru_sakha_early", "long_name": "Sakha - Early", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1632 }, "year_from": 1400, "year_to": 1632, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "According to Stalenberg and Lindenau, after a wealthy Sakha died, his best servant was killed and buried with him. His horse was also killed so that he could ride it in the afterlife <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/c26e8b87-bc0d-4c40-a957-762ad3d025ee/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Okladnikov, Alexey P. 1955. Yakutiya do prisoedineniia...)</a> Okladnikov cites many works of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries that refer to sacrifices of slaves, captives, and horses at the funerals of rich Sakha during the sixteenth century and earlier.", "description": "" } ] }