Human Sacrifice List
A viewset for viewing and editing Human Sacrifices.
GET /api/rt/human-sacrifices/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 357, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/human-sacrifices/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/human-sacrifices/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": -217, "year_to": -32, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "HS was not practiced within Classical Greek or Hellenistic cultures ( Jennifer Larson, pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni, 2016);no evidence for HS among Egyptian population.", "description": "" }, { "id": 80, "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631 }, "year_from": 395, "year_to": 631, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Christianity was the state religion from fourth century CE onwards, and strongly proscribed HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a> ;late instances of the execution of Vestal Virgins appear to be criminal executions rather than ritual killings. While it is possible that the combat of the rex nemorensis continued into the third or even the fourth century, this seems unlikely (Jennifer Larson, pers. comm. to Seshat board, January 2021)", "description": "" }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": 661, "year_to": 750, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": 750, "year_to": 946, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": 868, "year_to": 908, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": 909, "year_to": 1170, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": 1171, "year_to": 1250, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": 1260, "year_to": 1347, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 236, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate II", "start_year": 1348, "end_year": 1412 }, "year_from": 1348, "year_to": 1411, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": 1412, "year_to": 1516, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683 }, "year_from": 1517, "year_to": 1682, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839 }, "year_from": 1683, "year_to": 1839, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Islam strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": -250, "year_to": 49, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "According to Roderick McIntosh (pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni, 2016), there is “very little evidence” for human sacrifice at Jenné-jeno. As relatively few human remains have been found at the site <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/687d2eed-aa1f-4b4b-aa61-1a638ea3edd4/update/\">(NOZOTERO: McIntosh, R. J. and McIntosh, S. K. 1995....)</a> , and none of the sources discuss signs of human sacrifice, this variable is coded as unknown.", "description": "" }, { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": 50, "year_to": 399, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "According to Roderick McIntosh (pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni, 2016), there is “very little evidence” for human sacrifice at Jenné-jeno. As relatively few human remains have been found at the site <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/44570830-0be7-463b-8a5a-e24df9116ca1/update/\">(NOZOTERO: McIntosh, R. J. and McIntosh, S. K. 1995....)</a> , and none of the sources discuss signs of human sacrifice, this variable is coded as unknown.", "description": "" }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": 400, "year_to": 899, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "According to Roderick McIntosh (pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni, 2016), there is “very little evidence” for human sacrifice at Jenné-jeno. As relatively few human remains have been found at the site <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/54729603-3612-48ac-8959-59b4c43b7ea6/update/\">(NOZOTERO: McIntosh, R. J. and McIntosh, S. K. 1995....)</a> , and none of the sources discuss signs of human sacrifice, this variable is coded as unknown.", "description": "" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": 900, "year_to": 999, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "According to Roderick McIntosh (pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni, 2016), there is “very little evidence” for human sacrifice at Jenné-jeno. As relatively few human remains have been found at the site <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/ff10ed2f-99f1-49b8-b5ed-0ab9686409bd/update/\">(NOZOTERO: McIntosh, R. J. and McIntosh, S. K. 1995....)</a> , and none of the sources discuss signs of human sacrifice, this variable is coded as unknown.", "description": "" }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": 1000, "year_to": 1077, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Retainer sacrifice: female slaves killed at funerals of high-status men, according to Arab travellers in tenth and eleventh centuries CE <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, p. 61]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": 1100, "year_to": 1202, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "During this period, ruling elites adopted Islam, which strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a> However, there are reasons to doubt that retainer sacrifice, as documented for early Wagadu, disappeared (Rebecca Shumway, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, March 2021). In the fourteenth century, Ibn Battuta witnessed funerary sacrifice of retainers, elite children and servants on the death of the king of Gobir, in nearby Hausaland <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, p. 61]</a> Law <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, p. 62]</a> argues that Islam probably decreased the incidence of HS in northern West Africa, but that it occasionally still took place even in “thoroughly Muslim” polities such as Borno.", "description": "" }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": 1235, "year_to": 1410, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "During this period, ruling elites adopted Islam, which strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a> However, there are reasons to doubt that retainer sacrifice, as documented for early Wagadu, disappeared (Rebecca Shumway, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, March 2021). In the fourteenth century, Ibn Battuta witnessed funerary sacrifice of retainers, elite children and servants on the death of the king of Gobir, in nearby Hausaland <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, p. 61]</a> Law <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, p. 62]</a> argues that Islam probably decreased the incidence of HS in northern West Africa, but that it occasionally still took place even in “thoroughly Muslim” polities such as Borno.", "description": "" }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": 1493, "year_to": 1590, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "During this period, ruling elites adopted Islam, which strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a> However, there are reasons to doubt that retainer sacrifice, as documented for early Wagadu, disappeared (Rebecca Shumway, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, March 2021). In the fourteenth century, Ibn Battuta witnessed funerary sacrifice of retainers, elite children and servants on the death of the king of Gobir, in nearby Hausaland <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, p. 61]</a> Law <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, p. 62]</a> argues that Islam probably decreased the incidence of HS in northern West Africa, but that it occasionally still took place even in “thoroughly Muslim” polities such as Borno.", "description": "" }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": 1591, "year_to": 1618, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "During this period, ruling elites adopted Islam, which strongly proscribes HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a> However, there are reasons to doubt that retainer sacrifice, as documented for early Wagadu, disappeared (Rebecca Shumway, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, March 2021). In the fourteenth century, Ibn Battuta witnessed funerary sacrifice of retainers, elite children and servants on the death of the king of Gobir, in nearby Hausaland <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, p. 61]</a> Law <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, p. 62]</a> argues that Islam probably decreased the incidence of HS in northern West Africa, but that it occasionally still took place even in “thoroughly Muslim” polities such as Borno.", "description": "" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 433, "name": "ml_segou_k", "long_name": "Segou Kingdom", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1712 }, "year_from": 1650, "year_to": 1711, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "In Mali in the 1970s, Brett-Smith <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2VZ7H2PX\">[Brett-Smith 1983, pp. 62-63]</a> recorded Bamana informants’ recollections suggesting that HS of war captives and outsiders took place in former times. One informant also claimed that albino people were kept at court and sacrificed to deflect harm from rulers if diviners “foresaw a great disaster” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2VZ7H2PX\">[Brett-Smith 1983, p. 62]</a> HS inferred present for earlier periods (Ségou and Bamana states) due to cultural and religious continuity from seventeenth century to present.", "description": "" }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 434, "name": "ml_bamana_k", "long_name": "Bamana kingdom", "start_year": 1712, "end_year": 1861 }, "year_from": 1712, "year_to": 1818, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "In Mali in the 1970s, Brett-Smith <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2VZ7H2PX\">[Brett-Smith 1983, pp. 62-63]</a> recorded Bamana informants’ recollections suggesting that HS of war captives and outsiders took place in former times. One informant also claimed that albino people were kept at court and sacrificed to deflect harm from rulers if diviners “foresaw a great disaster” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2VZ7H2PX\">[Brett-Smith 1983, p. 62]</a> HS inferred present for earlier periods (Ségou and Bamana states) due to cultural and religious continuity from seventeenth century to present.", "description": "" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": 1501, "year_to": 1701, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Slaves sacrificed at funerals of rulers and high-status men during the seventeenth century;war captives possibly also offered to deities <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, pp. 69-70]</a> A Dutch trader named Pieter de Marees observed similar practices in the early 1600s (Rebecca Shumway, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, March 2021). Later ethnographies of Akan people note that royal ancestors, embodied by wooden stools, were “fed” with human blood in former times <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZJ844XUN\">[Gilbert_Lagacé_Skoggard 2000]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": 1702, "year_to": 1895, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "There are many eyewitness accounts of funerary and emergency HS (Rebecca Shumway, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, March 2021). The Asante practised HS on a grand scale at private and royal funerals, to ensure the success of military operations and on occasions of disaster <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, p. 70]</a> The annual Yam and monthly Adae festivals also included HS <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, p. 70]</a> From 1874, the British passed a series of laws to abolish HS, but it continued on a smaller scale <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/39VMC55B\">[Law 1985, p. 70]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 59, "name": "gr_crete_nl", "long_name": "Neolithic Crete", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": -7000, "year_to": -3001, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "We are aware of no evidence of HS for this period.", "description": "" }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": -3000, "year_to": -1901, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "We are aware of no evidence of HS for this period.", "description": "" }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": -1300, "year_to": -1201, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Probable emergency HS during phase of Mycenaean occupation at palace of Kydonia, LM IIIB period (1300–1200 BCE);Disarticulated bones of young woman found in a court associated with palatial complex <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZE56F46\">[Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2015, p. 29]</a> ;domestic animal remains and possible altar nearby <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZE56F46\">[Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2015, p. 30]</a> Her skull was split along natural sutures and placed alongside goat and pig skulls;her remains were treated in the same way as those of the sacrificial animals <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZE56F46\">[Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2015, p. 32]</a> Andreadaki-Vlazaki argues that both woman and c. 50 animals were offered in a state-sanctioned ritual to placate “chthonic deities, daimones and powers” after a severe earthquake in LM IIIB <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZE56F46\">[Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2015, p. 34]</a> An apparent retainer sacrifice in a LMIII-B tomb at Kydonia, still unpublished, is said to resemble those claimed for Mycenaean tombs on the mainland <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZE56F46\">[Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2015, p. 38]</a> n. 22;for the mainland examples see <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IJFSICYW\">[Hughes 2013, pp. 31-33]</a> More generally for Mycenaean culture, HS is probable for a skeleton buried amid Zeus’ ash altar on Mt. Lykaion during the 11th century <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/8476ed94-f55d-4c86-95bc-00341046a168/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Karapanagiotou, Anna, David G. Romano and...)</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 65, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2", "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": -1200, "year_to": -1001, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Probable emergency HS during phase of Mycenaean occupation at palace of Kydonia, LM IIIB period (1300–1200 BCE);Disarticulated bones of young woman found in a court associated with palatial complex <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZE56F46\">[Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2015, p. 29]</a> ;domestic animal remains and possible altar nearby <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZE56F46\">[Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2015, p. 30]</a> Her skull was split along natural sutures and placed alongside goat and pig skulls;her remains were treated in the same way as those of the sacrificial animals <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZE56F46\">[Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2015, p. 32]</a> Andreadaki-Vlazaki argues that both woman and c. 50 animals were offered in a state-sanctioned ritual to placate “chthonic deities, daimones and powers” after a severe earthquake in LM IIIB <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZE56F46\">[Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2015, p. 34]</a> An apparent retainer sacrifice in a LMIII-B tomb at Kydonia, still unpublished, is said to resemble those claimed for Mycenaean tombs on the mainland <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HZE56F46\">[Andreadaki-Vlazaki 2015, p. 38]</a> n. 22;for the mainland examples see <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IJFSICYW\">[Hughes 2013, pp. 31-33]</a> More generally for Mycenaean culture, HS is probable for a skeleton buried amid Zeus’ ash altar on Mt. Lykaion during the 11th century <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/8b750427-09b5-4f7d-b1a3-3fe955758dc1/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Karapanagiotou, Anna, David G. Romano and...)</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 68, "name": "gr_crete_classical", "long_name": "Classical Crete", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -323 }, "year_from": -500, "year_to": -323, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "In Greek culture of the Classical period and later, HS was generally deprecated as uncivilized;although some ancient authors claim it occurred, the scholarly consensus tends to discount their historicity <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/22GHV2JB\">[Bonnechere 1994]</a> note reservations in <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/382d21af-c047-4f66-a0c2-1080bbc2f3c6/update/\">(NOZOTERO: González González, Marta. “Who should be...)</a> The potential cases in question did not occur in Crete.", "description": "" }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": -323, "year_to": -69, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "In Greek culture of the Classical period and later, HS was generally deprecated as uncivilized;although some ancient authors claim it occurred, the scholarly consensus tends to discount their historicity <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/22GHV2JB\">[Bonnechere 1994]</a> note reservations in <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/81e0c61b-8ed3-4cde-83cb-9b243da24033/update/\">(NOZOTERO: González González, Marta. “Who should be...)</a> The potential cases in question did not occur in Crete.", "description": "" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 73, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_1", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire I", "start_year": 632, "end_year": 866 }, "year_from": 632, "year_to": 823, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "The Romans banned most forms of HS during the late Republic. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/272ZQEIT\">[Beard 1998, p. 233]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/a4553fa1-abaf-43ae-afe4-d04b70bd4b40/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Pliny, Natural History)</a> This prohibition continued into the Imperial and Byzantine periods. Christianity was the state religion from fourth century CE onwards, and strongly proscribed HS. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": 824, "year_to": 960, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Christianity and Islam both strongly proscribe HS. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4FFR7BN9\">[Sherwood 2004, pp. 831-832]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 75, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_2", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire II", "start_year": 867, "end_year": 1072 }, "year_from": 867, "year_to": 1072, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "The Romans banned most forms of HS during the late Republic (Pliny 30.3). <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/272ZQEIT\">[Beard 1998, p. 233]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/a4553fa1-abaf-43ae-afe4-d04b70bd4b40/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Pliny, Natural History)</a> This prohibition continued into the Imperial and Byzantine periods. Christianity was the state religion from fourth century CE onwards, and strongly proscribed HS. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JLKJGGQW\">[Watts_Eberhart 2011]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 76, "name": "tr_byzantine_emp_3", "long_name": "Byzantine Empire III", "start_year": 1073, "end_year": 1204 }, "year_from": 1073, "year_to": 1203, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "Christian polity; HS not practiced.", "description": "" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": -2000, "year_to": -1181, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Emergency HS: the Hebrew Bible [e.g. 2 Kings 3], iconography on Egyptian reliefs, and other sources show that when Canaanite cities were besieged, their inhabitants would sometimes sacrifice human victims to the city god <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4S5ABCML\">[Noll 2007]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/dabc96c6-d929-41fc-b9d2-40cb530e5fe5/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Spalinger, A. 1978, ‘A Canaanite Ritual Found...)</a> According to the Bible [1 Samuel 15], the Canaanites also sometimes killed war captives after military victory, as a sacrifice to the god who had aided them <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4S5ABCML\">[Noll 2007]</a> Possible child sacrifice: associated with a thirteenth-century BCE altar near Amman, modern-day Jordan were the burned bones of infants <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/f9a78426-ec59-479a-9342-0f8e17688c23/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Smith, Mark. 2002. The Early History of God....)</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": -1180, "year_to": -1031, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Literary evidence suggests that the Phoenicians practiced HS, but some scholars discount it (Julye Bidmead, pers. comm., Oxford workshop January 2017). Philo of Byblos, writing in the third century CE, translated into Greek a Phoenician history dating to c. 1000 BCE, which records a tradition that during the Trojan War, in times of grave danger the “princes of the city” would sacrifice their most cherished sons to the god El <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/75f49c4c-8c2c-4ea9-b49e-3f2c7dcc0966/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Aubet, Maria Eugenia. 2001. The Phoenicians...)</a> There is also archaeological and literary evidence for infant sacrifice at Carthage <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/b1a0a7bc-e751-4f43-bcb3-f8f81fcdd472/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Clifford, Richard. 1990. \"Phoenician Religion.\"...)</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/765a0de1-2d6e-40b8-a0a2-08f29c8c53ce/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Xella, Paolo, Josephine Quinn, Valentina...)</a> , which was originally a colony of the city of Tyre and shared many religious beliefs and rituals with Phoenicia.", "description": "" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": -1030, "year_to": -722, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Certain passages in the Hebrew Bible suggest that HS was a feature of Iron Age Israelite religion. 2 Kings 17:17 claims that the Israelites who served the Baal deities sacrificed their own children. Smith <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/19126d33-e3e2-4ca1-b776-31e056236de0/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Smith, Mark. 2002. The Early History of God....)</a> believes that the children were in fact offered to YHWH, but reframed as offerings to Baal by later Biblical authors. HS in Israel would be consistent with the behavior of surrounding societies (Oren Litwin, pers. comm., 2017). There is good epigraphic and archaeological evidence for HS in Bronze Age Canaan, see above, and there are many continuities between Canaanite and early Israelite cultic practices. In his monograph on the subject, Dewrell <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FSKWK4EG\">[Dewrell 2017]</a> concludes that HS undoubtedly took place in ancient Israel, and that the Biblical condemnation of it solidified only later.", "description": "" }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": -911, "year_to": -612, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "To the best of our knowledge there is no archaeological evidence of HS in the Neo-Assyrian Empire <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NUXFVUCP\">[Bidmead_Reddish 2021]</a> However, textual evidence strongly suggests that it did take place. An ancient Mesopotamian form of HS known as the “substitute king” ritual was practiced in the Neo-Assyrian Empire. When omens indicated that the king's life was in danger, a substitute was installed in his place, and rituals were performed to deflect the ill omens onto him. The substitute was sacrificed at the end of the period. For example, the ritual was carried out for Esarhaddon (r. 681‒69 BCE) several times during his reign <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/496A7N87\">[Radner 2003, pp. 171-172]</a> The last time it was performed was after the end of Neo-Assyrian rule, in 323 BCE on behalf of the dying Alexander <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/496A7N87\">[Radner 2003, p. 172]</a> Other forms of HS may also have been practiced. Adams describes Neo-Assyrian legal documents containing “penalty formulas which demand that the person who breaks the contract can redeem himself only by burning his eldest child on the altar of a temple” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5N9TBAFJ\">[Adams 1969, p. 474]</a> It is not clear whether these penalties were carried out, or were merely threats to deter contract-breaking. \r\n\r\nHS also probably continued in the Levant under Neo-Assyrian rule. In 2 Kings 16:3 and 23:10, the Judean kings Ahaz (732–16 BCE) and Manasseh (687–43 BCE) are accused of HS, and the prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah fulminated against the practice until at least 586 BCE <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NUXFVUCP\">[Bidmead_Reddish 2021]</a>", "description": "" }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": -312, "year_to": -63, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "HS was not practiced within Hellenistic cultures ( Jennifer Larson, pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni, 2016).", "description": "" }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": -141, "year_to": -63, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "The Hebrew Bible views HS as an abomination (e.g. Isaiah 66:3 and Leviticus 20:2 and Deuteronomy 18:10). Jewish literature of the Hellenistic and Roman periods condemns HS, especially by ancient Canaanites, and gives the impression that it was no longer practiced in the Levant or in other parts of the Mediterranean <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/52EWF2E2\">[Berthelot_et_al 2007]</a> First-century BCE Judea also continued to participate in a wider Hellenistic cultural world, in which HS was not practised ( Jennifer Larson, pers. comm. to Enrico Cioni, 2016).", "description": "" }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 155, "name": "tr_konya_enl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Neolithic", "start_year": -9600, "end_year": -7000 }, "year_from": -9600, "year_to": -7101, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "We have coded HS unknown for the bulk of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic due to lack of evidence.", "description": "" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 155, "name": "tr_konya_enl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Neolithic", "start_year": -9600, "end_year": -7000 }, "year_from": -7100, "year_to": -7001, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "No definitive evidence for HS has been found. Moses <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7YAXFTEN\">[Moses_Porter_Schwartz 2012]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AMFCJ7VN\">[Moses_Bacarov 2008, pp. 48-52]</a> has argued that the bodies of infants found in the foundations of houses at Çatalhöyük represent sacrificial victims. She notes that neonate remains are overrepresented in these contexts, and believes babies could have been killed in rituals designed to strengthen family alliances. However, most archaeologists who have studied the site disagree with her interpretation (Scott Haddow, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, May 2017; Ian Hodder, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021; Harvey Whitehouse, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021). There is no evidence of violent death ( Ian Hodder, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021), and Carter et al. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKM6RV9C\">[Carter_et_al 2017, p. 106]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKM6RV9C\">[Carter_et_al 2017, p. 100]</a> <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKM6RV9C\">[Carter_et_al 2017, p. 106]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKM6RV9C\">[Carter_et_al 2017, p. 100]</a> have instead argued that human remains (including dead infants) were “stockpiled” to be deposited during house construction rituals. The site has also produced two burials of individuals who were thrown haphazardly into buildings that were being demolished or infilled. Sacrifice associated with building closure rituals is a possibility, but again there is no evidence of violence (Scott Haddow, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, May 2017).<br>We have coded HS unknown for the bulk of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic due to lack of evidence. HS is coded inferred absent for the period of occupation of Çatalhöyük’s East Mound, c. 7100–6000 BCE, to represent the current consensus among archaeologists that it did not take place.", "description": "" }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 156, "name": "tr_konya_mnl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -6600 }, "year_from": -7000, "year_to": -6601, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "No definitive evidence for HS has been found. Moses <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7YAXFTEN\">[Moses_Porter_Schwartz 2012]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AMFCJ7VN\">[Moses_Bacarov 2008, pp. 48-52]</a> has argued that the bodies of infants found in the foundations of houses at Çatalhöyük represent sacrificial victims. She notes that neonate remains are overrepresented in these contexts, and believes babies could have been killed in rituals designed to strengthen family alliances. However, most archaeologists who have studied the site disagree with her interpretation (Scott Haddow, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, May 2017; Ian Hodder, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021; Harvey Whitehouse, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021). There is no evidence of violent death ( Ian Hodder, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021), and Carter et al. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKM6RV9C\">[Carter_et_al 2017, p. 106]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKM6RV9C\">[Carter_et_al 2017, p. 100]</a> have instead argued that human remains (including dead infants) were “stockpiled” to be deposited during house construction rituals. The site has also produced two burials of individuals who were thrown haphazardly into buildings that were being demolished or infilled. Sacrifice associated with building closure rituals is a possibility, but again there is no evidence of violence (Scott Haddow, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, May 2017).<br>We have coded HS unknown for the bulk of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic due to lack of evidence. HS is coded inferred absent for the period of occupation of Çatalhöyük’s East Mound, c. 7100–6000 BCE, to represent the current consensus among archaeologists that it did not take place.", "description": "" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 157, "name": "tr_konya_lnl", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Neolithic", "start_year": -6600, "end_year": -6000 }, "year_from": -6600, "year_to": -6001, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "A", "comment": "No definitive evidence for HS has been found. Moses <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7YAXFTEN\">[Moses_Porter_Schwartz 2012]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AMFCJ7VN\">[Moses_Bacarov 2008, pp. 48-52]</a> has argued that the bodies of infants found in the foundations of houses at Çatalhöyük represent sacrificial victims. She notes that neonate remains are overrepresented in these contexts, and believes babies could have been killed in rituals designed to strengthen family alliances. However, most archaeologists who have studied the site disagree with her interpretation (Scott Haddow, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, May 2017; Ian Hodder, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021; Harvey Whitehouse, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021). There is no evidence of violent death ( Ian Hodder, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021), and Carter et al. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKM6RV9C\">[Carter_et_al 2017, p. 106]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKM6RV9C\">[Carter_et_al 2017, p. 100]</a> have instead argued that human remains (including dead infants) were “stockpiled” to be deposited during house construction rituals. The site has also produced two burials of individuals who were thrown haphazardly into buildings that were being demolished or infilled. Sacrifice associated with building closure rituals is a possibility, but again there is no evidence of violence (Scott Haddow, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, May 2017).<br>We have coded HS unknown for the bulk of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic due to lack of evidence. HS is coded inferred absent for the period of occupation of Çatalhöyük’s East Mound, c. 7100–6000 BCE, to represent the current consensus among archaeologists that it did not take place.", "description": "" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 158, "name": "tr_konya_eca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Chalcolithic", "start_year": -6000, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": -6000, "year_to": -5501, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "No definitive evidence for HS has been found. Moses <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7YAXFTEN\">[Moses_Porter_Schwartz 2012]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AMFCJ7VN\">[Moses_Bacarov 2008, pp. 48-52]</a> has argued that the bodies of infants found in the foundations of houses at Çatalhöyük represent sacrificial victims. She notes that neonate remains are overrepresented in these contexts, and believes babies could have been killed in rituals designed to strengthen family alliances. However, most archaeologists who have studied the site disagree with her interpretation (Scott Haddow, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, May 2017; Ian Hodder, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021; Harvey Whitehouse, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021). There is no evidence of violent death ( Ian Hodder, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021), and Carter et al. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKM6RV9C\">[Carter_et_al 2017, p. 106]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKM6RV9C\">[Carter_et_al 2017, p. 100]</a> have instead argued that human remains (including dead infants) were “stockpiled” to be deposited during house construction rituals. The site has also produced two burials of individuals who were thrown haphazardly into buildings that were being demolished or infilled. Sacrifice associated with building closure rituals is a possibility, but again there is no evidence of violence (Scott Haddow, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, May 2017).<br>We have coded HS unknown for the bulk of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic due to lack of evidence. HS is coded inferred absent for the period of occupation of Çatalhöyük’s East Mound, c. 7100–6000 BCE, to represent the current consensus among archaeologists that it did not take place.", "description": "" }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 159, "name": "tr_konya_lca", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Late Chalcolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -3000 }, "year_from": -5500, "year_to": -3001, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "No definitive evidence for HS has been found. Moses <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"/core/citations/5ffeec2c-8972-4c82-9f14-e7800c8b4e48/update/\">(NOZOTERO: Moses, Sharon K. 2008. “Çatalhöyük’s Foundation...)</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/7YAXFTEN\">[Moses_Porter_Schwartz 2012]</a> has argued that the bodies of infants found in the foundations of houses at Çatalhöyük represent sacrificial victims. She notes that neonate remains are overrepresented in these contexts, and believes babies could have been killed in rituals designed to strengthen family alliances. However, most archaeologists who have studied the site disagree with her interpretation (Scott Haddow, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, May 2017; Ian Hodder, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021; Harvey Whitehouse, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021). There is no evidence of violent death ( Ian Hodder, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, July 2021), and Carter et al. <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKM6RV9C\">[Carter_et_al 2017, p. 106]</a>, <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/TKM6RV9C\">[Carter_et_al 2017, p. 100]</a> have instead argued that human remains (including dead infants) were “stockpiled” to be deposited during house construction rituals. The site has also produced two burials of individuals who were thrown haphazardly into buildings that were being demolished or infilled. Sacrifice associated with building closure rituals is a possibility, but again there is no evidence of violence (Scott Haddow, pers. comm. to Agathe Dupeyron, May 2017).<br>We have coded HS unknown for the bulk of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic due to lack of evidence. HS is coded inferred absent for the period of occupation of Çatalhöyük’s East Mound, c. 7100–6000 BCE, to represent the current consensus among archaeologists that it did not take place.", "description": "" }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 160, "name": "tr_konya_eba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": -3000, "year_to": -2901, "tag": "IFR", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "P", "comment": "Retainer HS associated with the Royal Tomb at Malatya, 3000–2900 BCE. A stone cist contained a very wealthy male burial, interpreted as a “lord” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3MH2UMCU\">[Frangipane_Steadman_McMahon 2012, p. 982]</a> Two adolescents, one boy and one girl, were found lying on top of it, also with rich grave goods including copper diadems;two other adolescent female burials placed at the foot of the cist with no grave goods <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3MH2UMCU\">[Frangipane_Steadman_McMahon 2012, p. 982]</a> All three of the female secondary burials showed evidence of trauma shortly before death, e.g. broken ribs <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YW5FTH8K\">[Frangipane_et_al 2001, p. 129]</a> However, it should be noted that this is a rare – perhaps the only – example of evidence for HS in Early Bronze Age Central Anatolia (Mark Altaweel, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021). We have therefore coded unknown for most of the third millennium BCE.", "description": "" }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 160, "name": "tr_konya_eba", "long_name": "Konya Plain - Early Bronze Age", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": -2900, "year_to": -2001, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "Retainer HS associated with the Royal Tomb at Malatya, 3000–2900 BCE. A stone cist contained a very wealthy male burial, interpreted as a “lord” <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3MH2UMCU\">[Frangipane_Steadman_McMahon 2012, p. 982]</a> Two adolescents, one boy and one girl, were found lying on top of it, also with rich grave goods including copper diadems;two other adolescent female burials placed at the foot of the cist with no grave goods <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3MH2UMCU\">[Frangipane_Steadman_McMahon 2012, p. 982]</a> All three of the female secondary burials showed evidence of trauma shortly before death, e.g. broken ribs <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/YW5FTH8K\">[Frangipane_et_al 2001, p. 129]</a> However, it should be noted that this is a rare – perhaps the only – example of evidence for HS in Early Bronze Age Central Anatolia (Mark Altaweel, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021). We have therefore coded unknown for most of the third millennium BCE.", "description": "" }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 161, "name": "tr_central_anatolia_mba", "long_name": "Middle Bronze Age in Central Anatolia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": -2000, "year_to": -1701, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "human_sacrifice", "human_sacrifice": "U", "comment": "At least one case of retainer sacrifice is attested for the Early Bronze Age, and cultural continuities between the two periods are evident at some sites, e.g. Arslantepe <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3MH2UMCU\">[Frangipane_Steadman_McMahon 2012, p. 985]</a> This was also the period in which Hittite culture was developing prior to the rise of a Hittite kingdom after 1700 BCE, and emergency HS is considered an “archaic” Hittite rite by some scholars <a class=\"fw-bold\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KHUMMFQV\">[Moyer_et_al 1983, p. 33]</a> However, overall it is “doubtful or unclear at best” whether HS was practised in this period (Mark Altaweel, pers. comm. to Jenny Reddish, January 2021).", "description": "" } ] }