Elites Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Elites Religions.
GET /api/rt/elites-religions/?format=api&page=8
{ "count": 448, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/elites-religions/?format=api&page=9", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/elites-religions/?format=api&page=7", "results": [ { "id": 353, "polity": { "id": 496, "name": "ir_elam_2", "long_name": "Elam - Shimashki Period", "start_year": -2028, "end_year": -1940 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 262, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Elamite Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "‘’' Elamite kings sponsored the construction of Elamite temples. “ The scribes of Shilkhak-In-Shushinak, late in the millennium, compiled lists of ancestors. These lists were found at Susa inscribed on a stele and two door sockets and 4 were repeated in a series of bricks found in the In-Shushinak temple. The bricks purport to record the various rulers who built in the temple precinct of In-Shushinak at Susa and preserve the same names' found in the lists of ancestors . Of the twelve kings named in the early king list only Kindattu , Indattu I , his son, Tan-Rukhuratir, and Indattu II, the son of Tan-Rukhuratir, are mentioned in the later lists of ancestors.” §REF§ Carter, E. F. (1971). ELAM IN THE SECOND MILLENNIUM BC: THE ARCHEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Chicago). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IDBMCHHA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IDBMCHHA </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 354, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\" Such terminology in the Old Persian inscriptions corresponding to key terms in the Avesta shows beyond doubt that the Achaemenid rulers are well versed in the tenets of Zoroastrianism; but their inscriptions also make it clear that Zoroastrian dualism between truth and lie fits excellently for a “political” use of Zoroastrianism by the rulers to characterize their political fiends as enemies of religion.\" §REF§(Hutter 2020: 1286) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8W97BZBH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8W97BZBH </b></a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 355, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 266, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Akkadian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Religious office was likewise a calling worthy of a member of the royal family. Sargon and Naram-Sin appointed their daughters high priestesses of the moongod Nanna-Suen at Ur, so family connections may well have been important for temple officials too. The upper echelons of the new temple hierarchy were educated people sharing interests and background, if not a family tree, with their counterparts among the Akkadians in the provincial administration.\"§REF§(Foster 2015: 42) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/L2D5SHNN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: L2D5SHNN </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 356, "polity": { "id": 131, "name": "sy_umayyad_cal", "long_name": "Umayyad Caliphate", "start_year": 661, "end_year": 750 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Islam was in fact regarded as the property of the conquering aristocracy. Nevertheless, association with the elite in this way did have advantages for some, and at various times in different places we hear of large numbers of non-Arabs attempting to enter Islam by becoming mawali but being prevented from doing so, or at least from having their changed status recognised, by local Umayyad governors. Probably the best-known example was in Iraq around 700 when large numbers of local non-Arab cultivators sought to abandon their lands and flee into the Arab garrison towns to enter Islam as mawali, only to be forced back by the Umayyad governor al-Hajjaj who refused to recognise their claims.” §REF§(Hawting 1986, 5) Hawting, G.R. 2000. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N77JAM6S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N77JAM6S </b></a> §REF§“The problem for the Umayyads was that they had come to power as leaders of a conquering Arab elite and to have allowed the conquered peoples to enter Islam en masse would have abolished or at least weakened the distinction between the elite and the masses. §REF§ (Hawting 1986, 6) Hawting, G.R. 2000. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N77JAM6S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N77JAM6S </b></a> §REF§“As a result the Fitna has often been interpreted as the climax of a struggle for power within Islam between that class of Meccans typified by the Umayyads, the wealthy and powerful leaders of pre-Islamic Mecca, and those, largely from a lower social stratum, whose acceptance of Islam was more wholehearted. To use expressions frequently applied, it was the result of a struggle between the old and the new aristocracy.”§REF§ (Hawting 1986, 31) Hawting, G.R. 2000. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umayyad Caliphate AD 661-750. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N77JAM6S\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N77JAM6S </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 357, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Rather, caliphs prior to al-Ma’mun seem essentially to have subscribed to the emerging Sunni ulama’s views of what the caliph’s role and function ought to be.” §REF§ (Zaman 1997, 3) Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. 1997. ‘The Caliphs, the Ulama and the Law: Defining the Role and Function of the Caliph in the Early Abbasid Period’. Islamic Law and Society. Vol 4:1. Pp1-36. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NJV6BP5H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NJV6BP5H </b></a> §REF§ “The caliph’s participation in religious life was not in competition with, or over and above that of, the emergent Sunni ulama, but in conjunction with them; and both caliphs before and after the Mihna and the Sunni ulama all along seem to have recognized this.” §REF§ (Zaman 1997, 3) Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. 1997. ‘The Caliphs, the Ulama and the Law: Defining the Role and Function of the Caliph in the Early Abbasid Period’. Islamic Law and Society. Vol 4:1. Pp1-36. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NJV6BP5H\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NJV6BP5H </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 358, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 35, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Greek Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Though not explicitly religious, there are religious implications in the following source material. There were two different types of Seleucid elites, imperial and civic. The following source shows that the closer to court, the more ‘Hellenic’, the farther, the closer to indigenous local cults. Also, although the title of the source denotes a time period not within this polity range, much of the information within the chapter relates to the Seleucid Empire as a whole. “International networks of aristocratic guest-friendship known in Greek as xenia or philoxenia linked up the royal household with multifarious civic elites.” (69) §REF§ (Strootman 2011, 69) Strootman, Rolf. 2011. ‘Hellenistic Court Society: The Seleukid Imperial Court Under Antiochus the Great, 223-187 BCE’. In Royal Courts in Dynastic States and Empires: A Global Perspective. Edited by Jeroen Duindam, Tülay Artan, and Metin Kunt. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/63Q6DIUB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 63Q6DIUB </b></a> §REF§ “In an influential article, Christian Habicht calculated that in the third century a mere 2.5% of the Seleukid imperial elite consisted of non-Greeks.” §REF§(Strootman 2011, 81) Strootman, Rolf. 2011. ‘Hellenistic Court Society: The Seleukid Imperial Court Under Antiochus the Great, 223-187 BCE’. In Royal Courts in Dynastic States and Empires: A Global Perspective. Edited by Jeroen Duindam, Tülay Artan, and Metin Kunt. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/63Q6DIUB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 63Q6DIUB </b></a> §REF§ “[…] the ‘limited’ Hellenism of the court […] functioned as a means of integrating the various regional elites of the ethnically and culturally heterogeneous empires. […] the Hellenism of the Seleukid and Ptolemaic courts was non-national. […] Leading families in the provinces who benefited from the empire, or who aspired to participate in the system of imperial patronage, adopted a double, e.g. Hellenistic-Jewish, Hellenistic Babylonian, or Hellenistic-Greek, identity as an expression of allegiance and a means of distancing themselves from those excluded from power. […] The upper stratum of the court itself, however, consisted predominantly of ethnic Greeks and Macedonians.” §REF§(Strootman 2011, 66) Strootman, Rolf. 2011. ‘Hellenistic Court Society: The Seleukid Imperial Court Under Antiochus the Great, 223-187 BCE’. In Royal Courts in Dynastic States and Empires: A Global Perspective. Edited by Jeroen Duindam, Tülay Artan, and Metin Kunt. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/63Q6DIUB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 63Q6DIUB </b></a> §REF§“[…] the Seleukid kings themselves shaped their monarchical representation to match the expectations of their heterogeneous subject peoples, particularly in religious contexts. They always took care, however, to fit these respective cultural ‘faces’ into an umbrella culture and ideology of empire which in essence remained Hellenic. §REF§(Strootman 2011, 89) Strootman, Rolf. 2011. ‘Hellenistic Court Society: The Seleukid Imperial Court Under Antiochus the Great, 223-187 BCE’. In Royal Courts in Dynastic States and Empires: A Global Perspective. Edited by Jeroen Duindam, Tülay Artan, and Metin Kunt. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/63Q6DIUB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 63Q6DIUB </b></a> §REF§ “Like the Achaemenids before them, the Seleukids structured negotiations with local elites by patronizing local cults. But they did so more systematically and intensively. They also utilized cultic patronage as a means to integrate elites and create imperial cohesion […]” §REF§ (Strootman 2011, 34-35) Strootman, Rolf. 2011. ‘The Seleucid Empire Between Orientalism and Hellenocentrism: Writing the History of Iran in the Third and Second Centuries BCE’. The International Journal of Ancient Iranian Studies.Vol 11.1-2. Pp 17-35. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HWP32JGP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HWP32JGP </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 359, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 116, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Assyrian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "This is inferred from the following quote which highlights the connection between the king and the elites.“The fact that Sargon II includes in his address the elites of Assur—this is probably what is meant by “its people” (nišēšu)—reflects exactly the change that must have occurred after Tiglathpileser III (744–727 BCE) had succeeded in turning former vassal states into provinces of the Neo-Assyrian empire, thus significantly extending the borders of the Assyrian empire. Not only had the bureaucratic apparatus been enlarged in its highest ranks, the political change informed the cultural discourse as well, as illustrated by the newly introduced text categories.” …“In its mode and asymmetrical relationship, the “written communication” between the king and the god mirrors the communication between the king and the elites. It draws on the fictive dialogue but forms text categories of its own: the royal report to the god Ashur and Ashur’s letter to the king. Both text categories are of eminent importance for our understanding of the interaction and interdependency between the king and the religious elites of the city of Assur. These two text categories must be distinguished from the letter prayers of the Old Babylonian period dedicated by individuals to a variety §REF§ (Pongratz-Leisten 2014, 295) Pongratz-Leiste, Beate. 2014. ‘All the King’s Men: Authority, Kingship, and the Rise of the Elites in Assyria.’ In Experiencing Power, Generating Authority: Cosmos, politics, and the ideology of kingship in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia edited by Jane A. Hill, Philip Jones, and Antonio J. Morales. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/D6VMJ7VJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: D6VMJ7VJ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 360, "polity": { "id": 509, "name": "ir_qajar_dyn", "long_name": "Qajar Dynasty", "start_year": 1794, "end_year": 1925 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 270, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Twelver Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The later Qajar period witnessed a number of ‘ulema’-led movements which were openly oppositional to the state. This independence, gained through the establishment of an efficient system for the collection and retention of religious taxes (particularly khums and zakat). Others have attributed this independence to a natural attitude of opposition among the Twelver Shi’i clergy.” […] “Third, minority communities faced some sanction from certain strata of the Shi’i hierarchy.” §REF§ (Gleave 2005, 4, 11). Gleave, Robert. 2005 ‘Religion and Society in Qajar Iran: An Introduction.’ In Religion and Society in Qajar Iran. Edited by Robert Gleave. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EGMITHFH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EGMITHFH </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 361, "polity": { "id": 502, "name": "ir_elam_8", "long_name": "Elam - Crisis Period", "start_year": -1100, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 262, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Elamite Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Another prerogative of the gods was to confer and protect kingship. Puzur-Insusinak spoke of “the year when Insusinak looked at him (and) gave to him the four regions” (Scheil, 1908, p. 9). It was also Insusinak who conferred kingship upon Humban-numena and the latter’s son Untas-Napirisa (König, nos. 4, no. 13), but it was Manzat who conferred it on Igi-halki (Steve, 1987, no. 2).” §REF§ Vallat, F. 2011. ELAM VI. Elamite Religion. ‘’Encyclopedia Iranica’’, online edition, available at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/elam-vi. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3ACKKUDJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3ACKKUDJ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 362, "polity": { "id": 703, "name": "in_kalabhra_dyn", "long_name": "Kalabhra Dynasty", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 37, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Theraväda Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“According to Burton Stein, the Kalabhra interregnum may represent a strong bid by non-peasant (tribal) warriors for power over the fertile plains of Tamil region with support from the heterodox Indian religious tradition (Buddhism and Jainism). This may have led to persecution of the peasant and urban elites of the Brahmanical religious traditions (Hinduism), who then worked to remove the Kalabhras and retaliated against their persecutors after returning to power.” §REF§ (Srinivansan, 2021) Srinivasan, Raghavan. 2021. Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society. Mumbai: Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UGD5HUFP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UGD5HUFP </b></a> §REF§ “This has led to the inference that the Kalabhra rulers may have ended grants to Hindu temples and persecuted the Brahmins, and supported Buddhism and Jainism during their rule.” §REF§ (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N3D88RXF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N3D88RXF </b></a> §REF§ “The earliest epigraphic evidence for the construction of [Jain] temples and monasteries in brick and mortar is found in the Pulankurichi inscription of King Centan Kurran (ca. 500 A.D.). There is now a general consensus that he was a Kalabhra ruler as the name Kurran does not occur in the Pantiya dynasty.” §REF§ (Umamaheshwari 2018, 48) Umamaheshwari, R. 2018. Reading History with the Tamil Jainas: A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. New Delhi: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W5X9TKB9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W5X9TKB9 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 363, "polity": { "id": 703, "name": "in_kalabhra_dyn", "long_name": "Kalabhra Dynasty", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 2, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Jainism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“According to Burton Stein, the Kalabhra interregnum may represent a strong bid by non-peasant (tribal) warriors for power over the fertile plains of Tamil region with support from the heterodox Indian religious tradition (Buddhism and Jainism). This may have led to persecution of the peasant and urban elites of the Brahmanical religious traditions (Hinduism), who then worked to remove the Kalabhras and retaliated against their persecutors after returning to power.” §REF§ (Srinivansan, 2021) Srinivasan, Raghavan. 2021. Rajaraja Chola: Interplay Between an Imperial Regime and Productive Forces of Society. Mumbai: Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/UGD5HUFP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: UGD5HUFP </b></a> §REF§ “This has led to the inference that the Kalabhra rulers may have ended grants to Hindu temples and persecuted the Brahmins, and supported Buddhism and Jainism during their rule.” §REF§ (Jankiraman, 2020) Jankiraman, M. 2020. Perspectives in Indian History: From the Origins to AD 1857. Chennai: Notion Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N3D88RXF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N3D88RXF </b></a> §REF§ “The earliest epigraphic evidence for the construction of [Jain] temples and monasteries in brick and mortar is found in the Pulankurichi inscription of King Centan Kurran (ca. 500 A.D.). There is now a general consensus that he was a Kalabhra ruler as the name Kurran does not occur in the Pantiya dynasty.” §REF§ (Umamaheshwari 2018, 48) Umamaheshwari, R. 2018. Reading History with the Tamil Jainas: A Study on Identity, Memory and Marginalisation. New Delhi: Springer. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W5X9TKB9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W5X9TKB9 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 364, "polity": { "id": 705, "name": "in_madurai_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Madurai", "start_year": 1529, "end_year": 1736 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Nayaks, though nominally under the rule of Delhi, continued the Chola and Vijayanagar practices of treating temples as surrogate courts. In fact, the temples of Madurai and Tanjore became veritable cities unto themselves. Their gates were rarely closed, and urban life moved in and out at will. The Meenakshi Sunderesvara Temple (1623-59) has two main shrines the larger one dedicated to Shiva the manifestation of Sunderesvara (‘the beautiful one’) and the smaller to his wife Meenakshi (‘the fish-eyed one’). Nonetheless, the temple’s main deity is Meenakshi, a local regional goddess important to the Tamils. Though she was married to Shiva after the rise of the bhakti cults, she maintained her dominance over the populace.” §REF§ (Ching et.al. 2017, 595) Ching, Francis D.K. 2017. A Global History of Architecture. London: Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G432N7WK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G432N7WK </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 365, "polity": { "id": 698, "name": "in_cholas_1", "long_name": "Early Cholas", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Senganan [Kochchenganan], the Chola king famed in legends for his devotion to Siva figures as the victor in battle of Por against the Chera Kanaikkal Irumporai. The Chera king was imprisoned and later released. Senganan Chola is said to have built 70 fine temples of Shiva.” §REF§ (Agnihotri 1988, 350) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PNX9XBJQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PNX9XBJQ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 366, "polity": { "id": 704, "name": "in_thanjavur_nayaks", "long_name": "Nayaks of Thanjavur", "start_year": 1532, "end_year": 1676 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 6, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Vaisnavist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The rule of the nayaka in Thanjavur came to an end in the second half of the seventeenth century. Vijayaraghava Nayak (1634-73), son of Raghunatha Nayak, was the last ruler of the nayaka dynasty. On the whole, this period shaped the country both economically and culturally since most of these Hindu (Vaishnava) rulers had cultural, literary, and scientific interests and were comparatively tolerant and open in religious matters.” §REF§ (Lieban 2018, 54) Lieban, Heike. 2018. Cultural Encounters in India: The Local Co-workers of Tranquebar Mission, 18th to 19th Centuries. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/32CRNR7U\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 32CRNR7U </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 367, "polity": { "id": 702, "name": "in_pallava_emp_2", "long_name": "Late Pallava Empire", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Most Pallavas were Hindus, with the majority of the Pallava rulers belonging to the Brahmin branch, and worshipped Shiva and Vishnu as well as other Hindu deities.” §REF§ (Bush Trevino 2012, 46) Bush Travino, Macella. 2012. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Vol.4 Edited by Carolyn M. Elliot. Los Angeles: Sage. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4RPCX448\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4RPCX448 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 368, "polity": { "id": 702, "name": "in_pallava_emp_2", "long_name": "Late Pallava Empire", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 890 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 6, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Vaisnavist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Most Pallavas were Hindus, with the majority of the Pallava rulers belonging to the Brahmin branch, and worshipped Shiva and Vishnu as well as other Hindu deities.” §REF§ (Bush Trevino 2012, 46) Bush Travino, Macella. 2012. ‘The Pallava Dynasty’ In Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia and Africa: An Encyclopedia. Vol.4 Edited by Carolyn M. Elliot. Los Angeles: Sage. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4RPCX448\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4RPCX448 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 369, "polity": { "id": 701, "name": "in_carnatic_sul", "long_name": "Carnatic Sultanate", "start_year": 1710, "end_year": 1801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 10, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sufi Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“At the same time the nawabs’ Pathan clients and military men helped to introduce a strong Naqshbandiya Sufi influence into Tamil country. Across the much of Asia in the eighteenth century, the Naqshbandiya were known for their fierce puritanism, their hatred of Shi’ism and Sufi cult shrines and their campaigners to ‘reform’ what they considered to be debased or improper Muslim worship. In fact despite support for many great Sufi cult shrines of the south, they also welcomed the Naqshbandiyas into their domain, and simply added them to the rich array of learned and holy men who they sought to support and sponsor – these ‘reformers’ and ‘purifiers’ certainly did not have the effect of standardising a new stamp of ‘orthodox’ scriptural conformity on the region’s religious traditions.” §REF§ (Bayly 1989, 149) Bayly, Susan. 1989. ‘Islam and State Power in Pre-Colonial South India.’ In India and Indonesia during the Ancien Regime. Edited by P.J. Marshall et al. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XZ386M9Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XZ386M9Z </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 370, "polity": { "id": 699, "name": "in_thanjavur_maratha_k", "long_name": "Thanjavur Maratha Kingdom", "start_year": 1675, "end_year": 1799 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Marathas of Thanjavur were Saivities in their faith, and in addition they are noted for their catholicity.” §REF§ (Srinivasan 1984, 44) Srinivasan, C.R. 1984. ‘Some Interesting Aspects of the Maratha Rule as Gleaned from the Tamil Copper-Plates of the Thanjavur Marathas’. Journal of the Epigraphical Society of India. Vol. 11. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PXQ87WQH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PXQ87WQH </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 371, "polity": { "id": 700, "name": "in_pandya_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Pandyas", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "NB The Early Pandyas reigned during the Sangam period mentioned in the following quote. “The Sangam religion was originally ancient Shaivism, which remained predominant, especially the cults of Shiva and Murugan (or Skanda), Shiva’s son.” §REF§ (Danielou, 2003) Danielou, Alain. 2003. A Brief History of India. New York: Simon and Schuster. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFMTGQJ8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFMTGQJ8 </b></a> §REF§ “The Vedic religion had struck root in the south, which is proved by references to the costly sacrifices performed by the monarchs of the age. Brahmins, devoted to their studies and religious duties, held a high position in society.” §REF§ (Agnihotri 1988, 360) Agnihotri, V.K. 1988. Indian History. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Pvt. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PNX9XBJQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PNX9XBJQ </b></a> §REF§ “A temple of the Hindu deities Minakshi and Sundareshvara (Parvati and Shiva), located at Madurai in Tamil Nadu. It was initially built by the Pandya dynasty, and reconstructed in the seventeenth century, during the time of the Nayaka dynasty. This elaborate temple complex actually has two temples, one dedicated to Shiva as Sndareshvara, the other to Minakshi.” §REF§ (Dalal 2010, 240) Dalal, Roshen. 2010. Religions in India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. London: Penguin. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V5Q4ZI4B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V5Q4ZI4B </b></a> §REF§ “Pandyan courtly epics extol Madurai as a city of extreme beauty, and connect the Pandya royal lineage with Minakshi, the tutelary goddess of Madurai, and her consort, Sundareshvara (a form of Shiva).” §REF§ (Howes 2003, 27) Howes, Jennifer. 2003. The Courts of Pre-Colonial South India: Material Culture and Kingship. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MW6J4P5A\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MW6J4P5A </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 372, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 239, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The underlying issue, however, as I see it, is relatively simple: the socio-political elite had a sharply different interest in the religious system from that of the mass of the population, day-labourers and peasant-farmers. Thanks to its domination of public rhetoric, it enjoyed the social power of representing ‘Roman religion’ as the engine of Roman imperial success. Although that religion was acknowledged to be a construction over time, created in its main lines by certain grand figures of the remote past—the legendary Romulus, Numa, and Servius Tullius—but constantly refined by famous experts in pontifical law such as P. Mucius Scaevola (elected pontifex maximus in 130 BCE), its drift was consistent. From the point of view of this elite, itself of course the real driving-force behind territorial expansion, the gods smiled on Rome because she was equipped with the best religious institutions. As the poet Propertius put it, the Romans owed their empire not so much to their military prowess as to their religious observance.” §REF§ (Gordon 2008, 74). Gordon, Richard 2008. ‘Superstitio, Superstition and Religious Repression in the Late Roman Republic and Principate (100 BCE–300 CE)’. Past & Present. Vol 199 (3): 72–94. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3NP6QSZK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3NP6QSZK </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 373, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 274, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Arianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“We may suspect that for the Goths an essential feature of their Arianism was simply that it was not the faith of the Romans […] the Christianity they practiced was deemed heretical by the numerically dominant population among whom they settled.” §REF§ (Moorhead 1992, 95) Moorhead, John. 1992. Theodoric in Italy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X8RGRNS8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X8RGRNS8 </b></a>§REF§ “Ostrogoths formed such a small minority of the population in Italy […] Goths, despite holding political power in Italy, were strongly outnumbered by the Romans. So it was that they found themselves culturally giving ground: they were taking Roman names, coming to speak Latin, and beginning to convert to Catholicism. […] It may well be that mixed marriages aided this process of assimilation, for the child of a Goth and Roman would be likely to adopt the culturally dominant forms.” §REF§ (Moorhead 1992, 100) Moorhead, John. 1992. Theodoric in Italy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X8RGRNS8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X8RGRNS8 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 374, "polity": { "id": 186, "name": "it_ostrogoth_k", "long_name": "Ostrogothic Kingdom", "start_year": 489, "end_year": 554 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“We may suspect that for the Goths an essential feature of their Arianism was simply that it was not the faith of the Romans […] the Christianity they practiced was deemed heretical by the numerically dominant population among whom they settled.” §REF§ (Moorhead 1992, 95) Moorhead, John. 1992. Theodoric in Italy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X8RGRNS8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X8RGRNS8 </b></a>§REF§ “Ostrogoths formed such a small minority of the population in Italy […] Goths, despite holding political power in Italy, were strongly outnumbered by the Romans. So it was that they found themselves culturally giving ground: they were taking Roman names, coming to speak Latin, and beginning to convert to Catholicism. […] It may well be that mixed marriages aided this process of assimilation, for the child of a Goth and Roman would be likely to adopt the culturally dominant forms.” §REF§ (Moorhead 1992, 100) Moorhead, John. 1992. Theodoric in Italy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X8RGRNS8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X8RGRNS8 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 375, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 276, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Amalgamation of Roman Religion Etruscan Religion and local ‘cult’ practices", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“One theory of the early history of republican Rome suggests that at first the central power of the State was very weak and that power in the Latin area lay with clans based on great families and their clients, with only a loose attachment to any particular city. A glimpse of this different social and religious organization is perhaps offered by an inscription from Satricum in southern Latium, about 50 kilometres south-east of Rome. This text records a number of clients of a member of the clan Valeria (a man called, in archaic Latin, Poplios Valesios), making a dedication to the god Mars — though we do not know how clearly defined or permanent this group of clients was, or how characteristic this religious activity was. In some ways the lack of information about the cults of the gentes is surprising. Perhaps we should think that the growth of the power of the State between 500 and 300 B.C. involved the breaking down of the power of these great clans, and that the disappearance of their own religious traditions was not accidental but a deliberate policy of the priestly Colleges.”§REF§ (Beard 1996, 67-8) Beard, Mary. 1996. Religions of Rome: Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJPXZHID\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BJPXZHID </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 376, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 239, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Traditionally religion was deeply embedded in the political institutions of Rome: the political elite were at the same time those who controlled human relations with the gods; the senate, more than any other single Institution , was the central locus of 'religious' and 'political' power.”§REF§ (Beard 1996, 150) Beard, Mary. 1996. Religions of Rome: Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4A8FDSDD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4A8FDSDD </b></a>§REF§“In general, the elite were those most often present at religious rites, and public priesthoods were at the same time private banqueting circles offering a context for leading Romans to meet, to discuss, and to sacrifice on private grounds. […] Roman religion served the ruling class and enabled the communication of the elite and the people at games, in supplications, and during crisis rituals. […] They sometimes served the (never totally) internal procedures of the Roman nobility in the distribution and the use of power. If there are orders, they are partial. If there was a religion of the city ('polis religion'),40 it was not one organizing superstructure but a sectorial analytical tool.” §REF§ ( Rupke 2006, 191 -193) Rupke, Jorg. 2006. ‘Roman Religion’. In The Cambridge Companion to The Roman Republic. Edited by Harriet I. Flower. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BR6D95VQ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BR6D95VQ </b></a>§REF§“The Senate’s policy in regard to religion was conservative. […] the result of this policy was to compel a Roman citizen to confine himself to the worship of the gods of the state. In a state in which religion and citizenship were so closely linked, it was not strange that a citizen’s religion as well as his civic life, should be so controlled. ” §REF§ (Guterman 1971, 28) Guterman, Simeon. 1971. Religious Toleration and Persecution in ancient Rome. London: Aiglion Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DGNRK6XG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DGNRK6XG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 377, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 239, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The evidence of membership leaves no doubt that the senior priestly colleges were an important perquisite of the members of the ruling class and that they took a great deal of trouble to make sure that the places were properly allocated, like other sources of honour and power, amongst themselves. Precisely because the members were the great successful politicians of the period, it has been assumed that their motives for wanting religious office must also have been political not religious: hence the widespread assumption that the actions of the colleges and their members were entirely motivated by politics.” §REF§ (Beard 1996, 104) Beard, Mary. 1996. Religions of Rome: Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BJPXZHID\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BJPXZHID </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 378, "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "it_papal_state_3", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“No one could climb the church hierarchy without the support of relatives or compatriots of higher echelons […] cardinals did not act any differently from kings, princes, and barons anywhere else in Europe. Unlike other elites, this one exalted virtue of self-control, of moderation, of abstinence and piety.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 106) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“Powerful families or individuals might nominate priests to benefices, but corporate entities could do so also. […] Obtaining a good benefice was often the point of departure for the social rise of a whole family.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 108) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“The nuns were the impetus for spiritual reflection among elite laywomen, who procured crucifixes, prayer-stools and rosaries, read or listened to pious literature. […] The transformation of pious practices from public devotional acts to private prayer spread through the middle and upper class just as the mystical surge began to wane” §REF§ (Hanlon, 127) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“By the 1580s, Jesuits ran paying colleges exclusively for nobles” §REF§ (Hanlon, 127) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“Elites expressed an authentic solidarity with their social inferiors by financing new chapels.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 131) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“Sixteenth century elites everywhere in Europe demanded religious uniformity.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 138) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“Noblemen and the universita notables enjoyed the obit masses, sacraments, confession and prediction the monks offers.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 123) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 379, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "it_papal_state_2", "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 277, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholicism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Like many of Italy’s ruling elite, Guicciardini had interests that were too closely tied to the Church. […] §REF§ (Najemy, 80) Najemy, John. 2004. Italy in the age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/79HN45T3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 79HN45T3 </b></a>§REF§ “the popes re-established in their central Italian state by mid-century, Italy’s ruling elites in turn reclaimed the papacy.” §REF§ (Najemy, 73) Najemy, John. 2004. Italy in the age of the Renaissance: 1300-1500. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/79HN45T3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 79HN45T3 </b></a>§REF§ “The Medici were […] able to achieve control of the government by using their contacts in Rome to secure benefices for their clients throughout the Florentine territory, eventually making themselves Tuscan princes as well as Roman popes.” §REF§ (Peterson, 847) Peterson, David. 2000. ‘Out of the Margins: Religion and the Church in Renaissance Italy’. In Renaissance Quarterly. Vol. 53. 3. Pp. 835-879. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G4CWA22X\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G4CWA22X </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 380, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 14, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The last pagan senatorial priests are attested in the 390s.” §REF§ (Beard 1996, 384) Beard, Mary. 1996. Religions of Rome: Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4A8FDSDD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4A8FDSDD </b></a>§REF§“The growth in the number of Christians in Rome (and elsewhere in the empire) continued in the fourth century. Some of these were more visible than others: particularly women of the senatorial order, prominent in the later fourth century for their parade of virginity, self-starvation and other ascetic practices.” §REF§ (Beard 1996, 375) Beard, Mary. 1996. Religions of Rome: Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4A8FDSDD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4A8FDSDD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 381, "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "it_papal_state_1", "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The homogenizing process of Christian missionary work had been largely successful; by the eleventh century the majority of Europe was Christian. §REF§ (Peterson, 6) Peterson, Janine. 2009. ‘Holy Heretics in Later Medieval Italy’. In Past and Present. Vol 204. Pp. 3-31. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AX5J7D4G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AX5J7D4G </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 382, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 239, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The new aristocratic tombs were not a single artistic or social phenomenon, nor were they restricted to only one ethnic or linguistic group. Instead, they attest to the formation of a broad central Italian elite culture. Under this broad diffusion, there could be much local variation in funerary rites and practices as well as in the layout and construction of tombs. […] In the seventh and sixth centuries, the chief Etruscan communities were among Italy’s richest and most powerful urban centers, as such they would plainly have had a marked influence, either imposed directly through the power they exerted over their neighbours, or indirectly, through the models they provided for others. The similarity in material culture that many scholars regard as signifying the undoubted presence of an Etruscan elite may rather be due to the formation of an international elite style - one that crossed ethnic boundaries, and was shared by numerous local elites imitating each other to increase their own prestige.” §REF§ (Boatwright 2004, 12-42) Boatwright, Mary. 2004. The Romans: From Village to Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4A8FDSDD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4A8FDSDD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 383, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 279, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Etruscan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The new aristocratic tombs were not a single artistic or social phenomenon, nor were they restricted to only one ethnic or linguistic group. Instead, they attest to the formation of a broad central Italian elite culture. Under this broad diffusion, there could be much local variation in funerary rites and practices as well as in the layout and construction of tombs. […] In the seventh and sixth centuries, the chief Etruscan communities were among Italy’s richest and most powerful urban centers, as such they would plainly have had a marked influence, either imposed directly through the power they exerted over their neighbours, or indirectly, through the models they provided for others. The similarity in material culture that many scholars regard as signifying the undoubted presence of an Etruscan elite may rather be due to the formation of an international elite style - one that crossed ethnic boundaries, and was shared by numerous local elites imitating each other to increase their own prestige.” §REF§ (Boatwright 2004, 12-42) Boatwright, Mary. 2004. The Romans: From Village to Empire. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4A8FDSDD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4A8FDSDD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 384, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "it_papal_state_4", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“No one could climb the church hierarchy without the support of relatives or compatriots of higher echelons […] cardinals did not act any differently from kings, princes, and barons anywhere else in Europe. Unlike other elites, this one exalted virtue of self-control, of moderation, of abstinence and piety.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 106) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“Powerful families or individuals might nominate priests to benefices, but corporate entities could do so also. […] Obtaining a good benefice was often the point of departure for the social rise of a whole family.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 108) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“The nuns were the impetus for spiritual reflection among elite laywomen, who procured crucifixes, prayer-stools and rosaries, read or listened to pious literature. […] The transformation of pious practices from public devotional acts to private prayer spread through the middle and upper class just as the mystical surge began to wane” §REF§ (Hanlon, 127) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“By the 1580s, Jesuits ran paying colleges exclusively for nobles” §REF§ (Hanlon, 127) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§“Elites expressed an authentic solidarity with their social inferiors by financing new chapels.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 131) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§ “Noblemen and the universita notables enjoyed the obit masses, sacraments, confession and prediction the monks offers.” §REF§ (Hanlon, 123) Hanlon, Gregory. 2000. Early Modern Italy, 1550 – 1800: three seasons in European History. New York: St Martin’s Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B2S2SPVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B2S2SPVH </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 385, "polity": { "id": 189, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2", "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II", "start_year": 904, "end_year": 1198 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The homogenizing process of Christian missionary work had been largely successful; by the eleventh century the majority of Europe was Christian. §REF§ (Peterson, 6) Peterson, Janine. 2009. ‘Holy Heretics in Later Medieval Italy’. In Past and Present. Vol 204. Pp. 3-31. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AX5J7D4G\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AX5J7D4G </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 386, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In the eighth century, most popes had previously been deacons; in the ninth more had been priests of tituli; popes who had been bishops of another see only began with Marinus I in 883 and were highly controversial for a generation. The aristocratic families of the city spread easily across all these separate heirarches. Popes themselves were, even if not universally, usually from the same range of families too.” §REF§( Wickham 2015, 21) Wickham, Chris. 2015. Medieval Rome: Stability and Crisis of a City, 900-1150. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/M9IFG6CM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: M9IFG6CM </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 387, "polity": { "id": 516, "name": "eg_old_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Classic Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2650, "end_year": -2350 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§The following quote is included to demonstrate that many members of the elite circle held religious titles, such as priests. “The second major area of government was the administration of law and justice, an obligation for which justification was found in the Egyptians’ concept of ma’at, to the extent that some high officials bore amongst their titles that of ‘priest of Ma’at’.”§REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 83) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 388, "polity": { "id": 518, "name": "eg_regions", "long_name": "Egypt - Period of the Regions", "start_year": -2150, "end_year": -2016 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Ankhtifi, a nomarch of the 3rd and 2nd Upper Egyptian nomes during the earlier part of the Herakleopolitan period, embodies the new type of local ruler that emerged during the First Intermediate Period. […] As ‘great overlord of the nomes of Edfu and Hierakonpolis’ and ‘overseer of priests’, Ankhtifi simultaneously held key positions in both the religious and secular wings of the Old Kingdom provincial administration. In fact, this combination of offices was typical for the largely independent local rulers of the First Intermediate Period.” […] “From earliest times, provincial temples were both administrative centres and foci of personal loyalty of the local population, and it seems likely that the priesthoods attached to these temples formed the core group of an early provincial elite. In a way, provincial cults may be understood as symbolic representations of collective identity. Therefore, during the First Intermediate Period, god and town often appear side by side in phrases referring to social embeddedness.” §REF§ (Shaw 2000, 118-123) Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZZVJVCN6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZZVJVCN6 </b></a>§REF§ “Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§ The following quote is included to demonstrate that many members of the elite circle held religious titles, such as priests. “The second major area of government was the administration of law and justice, an obligation for which justification was found in the Egyptians’ concept of ma’at, to the extent that some high officials bore amongst their titles that of ‘priest of Ma’at’.”§REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 83) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 389, "polity": { "id": 519, "name": "eg_middle_k", "long_name": "Egypt - Middle Kingdom", "start_year": -2016, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In the Old and Middle Kingdoms, elite women appear with the title Priestess of Hathor, others appear with the more modest priestly title ‘pure one’.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§“Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” The following quote is included to demonstrate that many members of the elite circle held religious titles, such as priests. “The second major area of government was the administration of law and justice, an obligation for which justification was found in the Egyptians’ concept of ma’at, to the extent that some high officials bore amongst their titles that of ‘priest of Ma’at’.” §REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 83) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL:<a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 390, "polity": { "id": 517, "name": "eg_old_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Late Old Kingdom", "start_year": -2350, "end_year": -2150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Texts and archaeological records document the religious practices of the elite of the society – those who had the resources to leave documents of their faith. As a result, religious beliefs of the non-elite are essentially unknown, although it is speculated that they were similar to the elite. […] religion was embedded into the overall society.” §REF§ (Teeter 2013, 23) Teeter, Emily. 2013. ‘Egypt’. In The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions. Edited by Barbette Stanley Spaeth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EI8SESIG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EI8SESIG </b></a>§REF§The following quote is included to demonstrate that many members of the elite circle held religious titles, such as priests. “The second major area of government was the administration of law and justice, an obligation for which justification was found in the Egyptians’ concept of ma’at, to the extent that some high officials bore amongst their titles that of ‘priest of Ma’at’.”§REF§ (Trigger, Kemp, O’Connor, and Lloyd 1983, 83) Trigger, B. G., Kemp, B.J., O’Connor, D., and Lloyd, A. B. 1983. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFHPVF36\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFHPVF36 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 391, "polity": { "id": 515, "name": "eg_dynasty_2", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty II", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 283, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Early Dynastic Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The plans of the 2nd-Dynasty elite tombs clearly evolved from the 1st Dynasty high officials' tombs at North Saqqara. Because the Saqqara plateau was made up of good quality limestone, these 2nd-Dynasty tombs were designed with rooms for funerary goods that were excavated deep in the bedrock, where the storage rooms may have been better protected from grave robbing than when they had been located in the superstructure. The later 2nd-Dynasty tombs at Saqqara, which probably belonged to middle-level officials, are similar in design to standard Old Kingdom mastaba-tombs.” §REF§ (Bard in Shaw 2003: 80) Bard, Kathryn, 2003. “The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c.3200-2686BC)”, in Ian Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp.57-82. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SQESRMD7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SQESRMD7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 392, "polity": { "id": 198, "name": "eg_new_k_1", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Thutmosid Period", "start_year": -1550, "end_year": -1293 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Elites during this time were fully integrated into the royal family or priesthood (often both), both completely dependent on the Ancient Egyptian religion belief system for legitimacy. However, it has very difficult to find quote that explicitly confirms this, in the literature consulted. The quotes below demonstrate that the elite, at different points, abided by different cults within the Ancient Egyptian religion, as well as demonstrating that they were fully folded into Ancient Egyptian cultic ideologies and iconographies. None of the consulted sources suggest that the elites followed any other religion. ‘Popular’ religion, in the following context, means personal or favored cult gods that one might pray to and follow privately. Also, there was a notable split during Akhenaten’s reign (and its aftermath), causing a shift in the religious following of the elite (some followed the new monotheistic god Aten, and some favored the old pantheon) but these are all still firmly within the bounds of Ancient Egyptian Religion. “A large percentage of the elite population, both male and female served as some category of priest/priestess/temple musician. […] This combination of a quasi-secular with a priestly title is a reflection of the way that religion was embedded into the overall society. §REF§ (Kemp 1995, 23) ‘How Religious were the Ancient Egyptians?’. 1995. Cambridge Archaeological Journal. Vol. 5. Pp. 25-54. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HNHVMVCC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HNHVMVCC </b></a>§REF§ “As a positive good, popular religion was probably more prevalent in the higher reaches of society where people had more resources to practise it.” §REF§(Waraksa and Baines 1999 , 34) Waraksa, Elizabeth and Baines, John. ‘Popular Religion (Volksreligion). In Handbuch der altägyptischen Religion. Edited by Jan Assman and Hubert Roeder. Leiden Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2FQQGFDK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2FQQGFDK </b></a>§REF§“[…] under Tutankhamun the court was divided into two circles: those who had been close to Tutankhamun and supported Akhenaten’s religion, and those who favored restoration and wanted a return to orthodoxy.[…]” §REF§(Kawai 2010, 263) Kawai, Nozumu. 2010. ‘Ay versus Horemheb: The Political Situation in the Late Eighteenth Dynasty Revisited’. Journal of Egyptian History. Vol. 3. Pp. 261-292. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BKJ5QV7T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BKJ5QV7T </b></a>§REF§“Under the reign of Amenhotep III, established elite families from provincial towns were again prominent in high offices of the central administration. […] Generally, the identity of the highest officials during the mid-Eighteenth Dynasty was connected to their genealogical affiliation with notable elite families. […] In the Amarna Period, officials connected to the Amun precinct are not documented, but in provincial towns high-status elite continued to retain local hereditary civil and religious titles. Genealogical information about Akhenaten’s officials is rarely known, but Akhenaten kept some of Amenhotep III’s officials in power, which may have helped bolster his claim to the throne; however, the relationship between elite officials and the king was adapted to Akhenaten’s reforms, which tied “the identity and success of an elite…directly to the king and his favor”. The status of Akhenaten’s officials was connected to their association with the king and the Aten.” §REF§(Hutchinson 2019, 4) Hutchinson, Amber. 2019. Provincial Cults during the Eighteenth Dynasty: Dialectical Relationship between Royal Patronage and Non-Royal Votive Activity. Toronto: University of Toronto. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXCH8U5V\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AXCH8U5V </b></a>§REF§“In the aftermath of the Amarna Period […] With the reinstatement of temple cults, the civic and temple administration were again staffed by individuals from notable provincial and military families.” §REF§(Hutchinson 2019, 5) Hutchinson, Amber. 2019. Provincial Cults during the Eighteenth Dynasty: Dialectical Relationship between Royal Patronage and Non-Royal Votive Activity. Toronto: University of Toronto. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXCH8U5V\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AXCH8U5V </b></a>§REF§“Concentrating on the material and textual evidence that attests to personal worship in homes, minor shrines, and cult places, Sadek assessed the social status of individuals who performed non-royal ritual and worship during the New Kingdom. His research demonstrates that popular religious practices were not only conducted by low status individuals, but also that it was typical for people of the middle class and even elite officials to be involved in religious activities separate from the state-run program.” §REF§ (Myśliwiec 1985, 1) Myśliwiec, Karol. Eighteenth Dynasty Before the Amarna Period. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PR6DMARG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PR6DMARG </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 393, "polity": { "id": 109, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_1", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom I", "start_year": -305, "end_year": -217 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 285, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Greco-Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“ […] at the core of the state most high officials were Hellenistic in identity […].” §REF§(Baines 2001, 33) Baines, John. ‘Egyptian Elite Self-Presentation in the Context of Ptolemaic Rule’. In Ancient Alexandria between Egypt and Greece. Edited by William Harris and Giovanni Ruffini. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VMCS8T9C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VMCS8T9C </b></a>§REF§“[…] from the time of Euergetes II. No longer was it essential to be Greek to succeed in post-Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Egypt. The elite ruled, whether Greek or Egyptian.’ §REF§(Adler 2005, 35) Adler, J. 2005. ‘Governance in Ptolemaic Egypt: From Raphia to Cleopatra VII (217 – 31 B.C.), Class-based ‘Colonialism’?’. Akroterion. Vol. 50. Pp. 27-38. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RR8HNKVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RR8HNKVH </b></a>§REF§“[…] the exclusive Greco-Macedonian hold on power in Egypt was ended, substituted by […] a vastly inferior intelligentsia made up of the Alexandrian citizen-body of mixed race.” §REF§(Adler 2005, 28) Adler, J. 2005. ‘Governance in Ptolemaic Egypt: From Raphia to Cleopatra VII (217 – 31 B.C.), Class-based ‘Colonialism’?’. Akroterion. Vol. 50. Pp. 27-38. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RR8HNKVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RR8HNKVH </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 394, "polity": { "id": 514, "name": "eg_dynasty_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty I", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 283, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Early Dynastic Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Mortuary inquiries have focused on royal tombs and on those of high elite. Both underwent substantial changes of the course of this period [1st Dynasty], with the most notable change being the introduction of massive tombs in the very early First Dynasty, including bench-shaped mastaba superstructures for the high elite. The tombs of the kings and high elite are present at only a few sites. These tombs and associated cult structures provide the majority of our evidence for the period as a whole.” §REF§ (Bestock 2020: 259) Bestock, Laurel, 2020. “Early Dynastic Egypt”, in Karen Radner, Nadine Moeller, and Daniel Potts (eds.), The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume I: From the Beginnings to Old Kingdom Egypt and the Dynasty of Akkad. (Oxford Oxford University Press), pp. 245-315. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SX8R4CJ7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SX8R4CJ7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 395, "polity": { "id": 199, "name": "eg_new_k_2", "long_name": "Egypt - New Kingdom Ramesside Period", "start_year": -1293, "end_year": -1070 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 178, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“A large percentage of the elite population, both male and female served as some category of priest/priestess/temple musician. […] This combination of a quasi-secular with a priestly title is a reflection of the way that religion was embedded into the overall society. §REF§ (Kemp 1995, 23) ‘How Religious were the Ancient Egyptians?’. 1995. Cambridge Archaeological Journal. Vol. 5. Pp. 25-54. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HNHVMVCC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HNHVMVCC </b></a>§REF§“ […] popular religious practices were not only conducted by low status individuals, but also […] it was typical for people of the middle class and even elite officials to be involved in religious activities separate from the state-run program (Sadek 1987: 2, 293). Personal worship could occur at several different places: homes, minor shrines, cult places, tombs, and the outer fringes of great official temples and was not completely restricted to private localities. Evidence for popular religion prior to the New Kingdom is less clear.” §REF§(Hutchinson 2019, 59) Hutchinson, Amber. 2019. Provincial Cults during the Eighteenth Dynasty: Dialectical Relationship between Royal Patronage and Non-Royal Votive Activity. Toronto: University of Toronto. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXCH8U5V\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AXCH8U5V </b></a>§REF§“As a positive good, popular religion was probably more prevalent in the higher reaches of society where people had more resources to practise it.” §REF§(Waraksa and Baines 1999 , 34) Waraksa, Elizabeth and Baines, John. ‘Popular Religion (Volksreligion). In Handbuch der altägyptischen Religion. Edited by Jan Assman and Hubert Roeder. Leiden Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2FQQGFDK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2FQQGFDK </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 396, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 285, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Greco-Egyptian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Indigenous Egyptian elites who held titles in the late Ptolemaic court hierarchy offer a counterpoint to the typical model of Hellenistic court society as a culturally and ethnically exclusive social space. §REF§ (Moyer 2011, 1) Moyer, Ian. 2011. ‘Court, Chora, and Culture in Late Ptolemaic Egypt’. American Journal of Philology. Vol.132. Pp. 16-44. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KNWEC6MJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KNWEC6MJ </b></a> §REF§“It could be argued that Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II now governed Egypt in co-operation with certain priesthoods. The king felt he could rely on the priests, landowners and educated among the indigenous Egyptian population. ‘At this critical moment in Ptolemy VIII’s reign, Egyptians thus finally succeeded for the first time in becoming members of the elite’.”§REF§(Adler 2005, 35) Adler, J. 2005. ‘Governance in Ptolemaic Egypt: From Raphia to Cleopatra VII (217 – 31 B.C.), Class-based ‘Colonialism’?’. Akroterion. Vol. 50. Pp. 27-38. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RR8HNKVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RR8HNKVH </b></a>§REF§“[…] from the time of Euergetes II. No longer was it essential to be Greek to succeed in post-Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II Egypt. The elite ruled, whether Greek or Egyptian.’ §REF§(Adler 2005, 35) Adler, J. 2005. ‘Governance in Ptolemaic Egypt: From Raphia to Cleopatra VII (217 – 31 B.C.), Class-based ‘Colonialism’?’. Akroterion. Vol. 50. Pp. 27-38. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RR8HNKVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RR8HNKVH </b></a>§REF§“[…] the exclusive Greco-Macedonian hold on power in Egypt was ended, substituted by […] a vastly inferior intelligentsia made up of the Alexandrian citizen-body of mixed race.” §REF§(Adler 2005, 28) Adler, J. 2005. ‘Governance in Ptolemaic Egypt: From Raphia to Cleopatra VII (217 – 31 B.C.), Class-based ‘Colonialism’?’. Akroterion. Vol. 50. Pp. 27-38. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RR8HNKVH\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RR8HNKVH </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 397, "polity": { "id": 513, "name": "eg_naqada_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Dynasty 0", "start_year": -3300, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 286, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Naqada Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“From the Naqada II phase onwards, highly differentiated burials are found in cemeteries in Upper Egypt (but not in Lower Egypt). Élite burials in these cemeteries contained large quantities of grave goods […] These burials are symbolic of an increasingly hierarchical society.” §REF§ (Bard in Shaw 2003: 57) Bard, Kathryn, 2003. “The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c.3200-2686BC)”, in Ian Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp.57-82. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SQESRMD7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SQESRMD7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 398, "polity": { "id": 221, "name": "tn_fatimid_cal", "long_name": "Fatimid Caliphate", "start_year": 909, "end_year": 1171 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“[…] most Fatimid imam-caliphs were born from slave women; for instance al-Mustanṣir’s mother, who obtained immense power in the mid-eleventh century, was originally an African concubine. It stands to reason that especially these elite women somehow shared the Ismāʿīlī cult of the Fatimid court […]” §REF§ (den Heijer, Lev, and Swanson 2015, 334) den Heijer, Johannes, Lev, Yaacov, and Swanson, Mark. 2015. The Fatimid Empire and its Population. Medieval Encounters. Vol. 21. Pp. 323-344. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HDSM663W\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HDSM663W </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 399, "polity": { "id": 512, "name": "eg_naqada_2", "long_name": "Naqada II", "start_year": -3550, "end_year": -3300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 286, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Naqada Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The start of Naqada II witnessed major changes in the burial customs. Whereas, previously, chieftains of communities seem to have been regarded as ordinary people who acted on behalf of their society and may have been accredited with special magical powers, now there emerged a new pattern. In the earlier communities, leaders had been buried in the same type of grave as the rest of their people, but during Naqada II, a new type of tomb was introduced. Most of the population continued to be interred in shallow round of oval pit-graves, but brick-built tombs were now provided for the ruling classes. Known today as mastabas or mastaba tombs, these established the pattern for royal and noble tombs in later times, and marked a clear distinction between the rulers and the ruled.” §REF§ (David 2002: online) David, Rosalie, 2002. Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt. (London and New York City: Penguin Publishing Group). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZA4FF7DC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZA4FF7DC </b></a> §REF§ “From the Naqada II phase onwards, highly differentiated burials are found in cemeteries in Upper Egypt (but not in Lower Egypt). Élite burials in these cemeteries contained large quantities of grave goods […] These burials are symbolic of an increasingly hierarchical society.” §REF§ (Bard in Shaw 2003: 57) Bard, Kathryn, 2003. “The Emergence of the Egyptian State (c.3200-2686BC)”, in Ian Shaw (ed.), The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp.57-82. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SQESRMD7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SQESRMD7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 400, "polity": { "id": 232, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_1", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate I", "start_year": 1260, "end_year": 1348 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Although personal piety should not be discounted as a factor in Mamiuk support for Sunni Islam, the “deficient” status of mamluks in Islamic society as individuals of pagan birth and slave origin, who craved acceptance at the political, and probably at the personal, level must certainly have been a consideration, for faith was an integrating and unifying factor; it was the one thing the Mamiuk elite shared with their subjects. […] The widespread establishment of madrasas assured the creation of an educated Sunni religious elite with shared values, one which could articulate a response to any challenge to official religion and which also, incidentally, tended to cooperate with the regime. It was also from among the madrasa graduates that appointments to the judiciary, to secretarial posts, and to the religious establishment were usually made. But the Mamluk elite, both through piety and the need to win the support and cooperation of the masses among whom Sufism was gaining increasing strength, also endowed Sufi institutions. §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 268-270) Northrup, Linda. 1998. ‘The Bahri Mamlūk sultanate, 1250-1390’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9WEQDXH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9WEQDXH2 </b></a>§REF§NB the following, however. “Naturally, the highest offices, such as the vizierate of state, were normally reserved for Muslims. There are two or three notable exceptions of Christians who wielded the power of vizier, sometimes bearing the title and sometimes not. But those individuals of Jewish birth who achieved this exalted office, such as Ya'qub ibn Killis (died 991), Hasan ibn Ibrahim al-Tustari (died 1064), and Sadaqa ibn Yusuf al-Fallahi (died 1048), had all converted to Islam prior to becoming vizier.” §REF§ (Stillman 1998, 206) Stillman, Norman. 1998. ‘The non-Muslim Communities: the Jewish Community’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J7AB3ZRW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: J7AB3ZRW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 401, "polity": { "id": 239, "name": "eg_mamluk_sultanate_3", "long_name": "Egypt - Mamluk Sultanate III", "start_year": 1412, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Although personal piety should not be discounted as a factor in Mamiuk support for Sunni Islam, the “deficient” status of mamluks in Islamic society as individuals of pagan birth and slave origin, who craved acceptance at the political, and probably at the personal, level must certainly have been a consideration, for faith was an integrating and unifying factor; it was the one thing the Mamiuk elite shared with their subjects. […] The widespread establishment of madrasas assured the creation of an educated Sunni religious elite with shared values, one which could articulate a response to any challenge to official religion and which also, incidentally, tended to cooperate with the regime. It was also from among the madrasa graduates that appointments to the judiciary, to secretarial posts, and to the religious establishment were usually made. But the Mamluk elite, both through piety and the need to win the support and cooperation of the masses among whom Sufism was gaining increasing strength, also endowed Sufi institutions. §REF§ (Northrup 1998, 268-270) Northrup, Linda. 1998. ‘The Bahri Mamlūk sultanate, 1250-1390’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9WEQDXH2\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9WEQDXH2 </b></a>§REF§ NB the following, however. “Naturally, the highest offices, such as the vizierate of state, were normally reserved for Muslims. There are two or three notable exceptions of Christians who wielded the power of vizier, sometimes bearing the title and sometimes not. But those individuals of Jewish birth who achieved this exalted office, such as Ya'qub ibn Killis (died 991), Hasan ibn Ibrahim al-Tustari (died 1064), and Sadaqa ibn Yusuf al-Fallahi (died 1048), had all converted to Islam prior to becoming vizier.” §REF§ (Stillman 1998, 206) Stillman, Norman. 1998. ‘The non-Muslim Communities: the Jewish Community’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J7AB3ZRW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: J7AB3ZRW </b></a>§REF§“With the stabilization of the political situation, we see great families of varying origins, whose history has been studied, regularly occupying the top posts in the different diwans: the Banu al-Haysam (converted Copts from Cairo), the Banu Nasr Allah (Muslims from Lower Egypt), the Banu’l-Kuwayz (converted Melkite Christians from Jordan), the BanuM-BarizI (Muslims from Hama), the Banu Muzhir (Muslims from Damascus), the Banu Katib Jakam (converted Copts from Cairo) and lastly the Banu’l-Ji'an (converted Copts from Damietta ). […] Often allied with the sultans while they were still only amirs, some of them subsequently acquired real political influence; men such as the confidential secretary ( katib al-sirr ) from 1413 to 1420, Nasir al-Din Muhammad al-Barizi; the supervisor of the army bureau (nazir al-Jaysh) from 14Z1 to 1439, Zayn al-Din ‘Abd al-Basit; the supervisor of the privy fund (nazir al-khass) from 1437 to 1458, Jamal al-Din Yusuf ibn Katib Jakam; and the confidential secretary from 1438 to 1452, Kamal al-Din Muhammad ibn al-Barizi. As their importance increased, the Christian origin of some of them aroused reactions of which the sultans were aware but which never had lasting consequences. The sultans became accustomed to finding the administrators necessary for the smooth functioning of the system in this milieu that was generally cultivated, wealthy and pious. Sometimes they were allied by marriage to the top ranks of the Circassian aristocracy, even to the families of the sultans. The costume of the civilian official no longer indicated a lower rank and was sometimes preferred to the uniform of the amir.” §REF§ (Garcin 1998, 307) Garcin, Jean-Claude. 1998. ‘The regime of the Circassian Mamluks’. In The Cambridge History of Egypt. Edited by Carl Petry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/2FPQCEQ4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 2FPQCEQ4 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 402, "polity": { "id": 367, "name": "eg_ayyubid_sultanate", "long_name": "Ayyubid Sultanate", "start_year": 1171, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\" “Within Egypt itself, the new power went to great lengths to create a class of men versed in religious, legal, and literary disciplines who could provide a solid backing for the Sunni state. The system of teaching in madrasas, imported from the Seldjuk east, was now installed permanently in Egypt; these were designed essentially for training the reliable men, devoted to Sunni Islam, who were required to give this undertaking a favourable start, recourse was frequently had to lawyers and teachers originating from militant Muslim circles in Syria and further east; but, little by little, the role of the purely Egyptian leadership became dominant and a social category arose which was qualified to act as a link between governors and people” §REF§(Garcin 1984: 375-6) Garcin, J. C. 1984. Egypt and the Muslim World. In D.T. Niane (ed.), General History of Africa IV. Africa from the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century (pp.371). University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6K2UKW85\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6K2UKW85 </b></a>.§REF§" } ] }