Elites Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Elites Religions.
GET /api/rt/elites-religions/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 448, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/elites-religions/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/elites-religions/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 288, "name": "mn_khitan_1", "long_name": "Khitan I", "start_year": 907, "end_year": 1125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The attitude of the royal house toward Buddhism was, on the whole, favorable. Although the rulers paid nominal respect to Confucianism as the ruling ideology, they were cognizant of the inherent Confucian antagonism to alien peoples, and hence were emotionally more attached to Buddhism. Buddhist scriptures were used in educating the children in the imperial family and Buddhist names were adopted by some members.\" §REF§(Ch'en 1964: 409) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SDPZ7RTB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SDPZ7RTB </b></a>§REF§ \"[A]lthough the Liao court tended to develop Confucianism in order to create a pool of literati as candidates for imperial bureaucrats (Zhang Reference Zhang, Zhang, Huang and Yu2006), the Khitan elites usually sided with Buddhism. A historical document records a story that when a Khitan elite gave a banquet in a Confucian temple on the day when sacrifices to Confucius were supposed to be offered, a group of Khitan ladies, showily dressed, entered the hall where the sculpture of the bearded Confucius was erected. One lady asked who the bearded man was, and another answered that he was just the one who cursed ‘us barbarians’. In laughter these ladies left (Tao Reference Tao1988, 173). The stateliness, loftiness and sanctity of this spiritual space essential to Confucianism was destroyed, or redefined, by the consumption of food and entertainment, the dressing of female bodies and the satire of Confucius. True or not, this story reveals the tension between orthodox Confucianism and the legitimacy of a nomadic empire. Because of this, the royal house made enormous and continuous investments in Buddhist buildings, which were commonly considered to be representative of Liao cities in the writings of Song ambassadors (Jia Reference Jia2004, 102).\"§REF§(Lin 2011: 238) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N778IHRD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N778IHRD </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 202, "polity": { "id": 50, "name": "id_majapahit_k", "long_name": "Majapahit Kingdom", "start_year": 1292, "end_year": 1518 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 176, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hindu-Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In the course of its expansion, Majapahit had come to exercise political authority over areas of North Sumatra converted to Islam early in the fourteenth century. Whether related to these Sumatran Muslims or not, there appears to have been a Muslim presence at the Majapahit court (Ricklefs 1981:5; Robson 1981:268).” §REF§ (Hefner 1985, 27) Hefner, Robert W. 1985. Hindu Javanese: Tengger Tradition and Islam. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6X4626J8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6X4626J8 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 203, "polity": { "id": 51, "name": "id_mataram_k", "long_name": "Mataram Sultanate", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1755 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Agung 's Islamizing of Javanese court culture and identity did nottake place in a vacuum, for elsewhere in Java and more widely in the Indonesian archipelago, Islam was making forward strides at court level.” §REF§ (Ricklefs 2006: 50) Merle Calvin Ricklefs, 2006. Mystic Synthesis in Java: A History of Islamization from the Fourteenth to the Early Nineteenth Centuries. Norwalk, CT: EastBridge Books. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JKGH84GW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JKGH84GW </b></a> §REF§ \"Southeast Asian Islam[...] took root in the region beginning around the thirteenth century, mostly as a mystically(Sufi) oriented variat of Sunni Islam.\"§REF§(Peletz 2011: 663) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XN54ZB33\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XN54ZB33 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 204, "polity": { "id": 49, "name": "id_kediri_k", "long_name": "Kediri Kingdom", "start_year": 1049, "end_year": 1222 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Kediri kingdom was ruled by a series of monarchs who considered themselves the incarnation of Hindu gods.” §REF§ (Levenda 2011: 336) Levenda, Peter. 2011. Tantric Temples: Eros and Magic in Java. United States: Ibis Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/G3DBGKF9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: G3DBGKF9 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 205, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 7, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mahayana Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Rulers were devotees of both Hindu deities and Buddhism of the Mahayana variety.” §REF§ (Miksic 2004: 863) Miksic, J., 'Mataram', in Ooi, K.G., Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2004. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WVEHV2M9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WVEHV2M9 </b></a> §REF§ NB the following quote refers to a disputed theory of a line of kings of Saivist tradition. Recently such theory has been challenged showing their support for Buddhist monasteries. “The merging of the two families through marriage, as proposed in the two-dynasty theory, has recently also been questioned, as has the idea that all the kings of the Sanjaya line were Saivites. Interestingly, the Wanua Tengah III inscription mentions a number of them explicitly as supporters of a Buddhist monastery.” §REF§ (Klokke 2016: online) Klokke, M. J. (2016). Central Javanese Empire (Early Mataram). In J. Mackenzie (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NVK2U3GA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NVK2U3GA </b></a> §REF§ “One could, in accordance with the two-dynasty theory, start from the idea that Balitung only mentions the indigenous Śaivite rulers who preceded him. The conclusion from the Wanua Tengah III inscription would be that some of these Śaivite rulers contributed to Buddhist monastery and supported Buddhism and others did not, and that those who did were probably pressured to do so by the Śailendra kings who were their overlords. One could also, in accordance with the single-line theory, start from the idea that Balitung tries to link himself with the kings of Central Java, whether Hindu or Buddhist, and whether belonging to the Śailendra dynasty or other families. And would not King Balitung, by restoring a grant to a Buddhist monastery to protect himself and his position, associate himself also with the important Śailendra kings, builders of many Buddhist temples? Although this is not the only possible interpretation, one could start from the hypothesis that the kings who established, maintained and restored the sīma to the benefit of the monastery were Buddhist kings and those who dissolved it or kept it dissolved were Hindu kings.\" §REF§ (Klokke 2008: 156) Klokke, Marijke I. “The Buddhist Temples of the Śailendra Dynasty in Central Java.” Arts Asiatiques, vol. 63, 2008, pp. 154–67. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9KJK895\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N9KJK895 </b></a> §REF§ “The ancient Mataram Kingdom initially had developed in the central part of the Java region, and according to the Canggal inscription dated 732 AD, the kingdom was ruled by King Sanjaya, who was the first king to adhere to Hindu-saiva (Poerbatjaraka, 1952, pp. 49–58). […] The inscriptions also show that the kings ruling Mataram were the family members of King Śailendra or Śailendravamsa. This dynasty is often related to Buddha Mahayana, because the term Śailendravamsa was used for the first time in the Kalasan inscription (700 Saka/778 AD), and King Śailendra apparently adopted the principles of the Buddha Mahayana. Here, we agree with the opinions of experts from previous studies that rebutted the theory of the two dynasties, “Sanjayavamsa” and “Śailendravamsa” existing in the central part of Java from the 8th to 10th century. Nevertheless, only the Śailendravamsa dynasty existed in this period, and some members practiced Hindu-saiva, whereas others practiced Buddha Mahayana.” §REF§ (Munandar 2017: 661-662) Munandar, A.A. (2017), “Ancient religious artworks in Central Java (8th–10th century AD)”, in Budianta, Melani, Budiman, Manneke, Kusno, Abidin, Moriyama, Mikihiro. Culutral Dynamics in a Globalized World (London and New York: Routledge), pp.661-668. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PSERXVCV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PSERXVCV </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 206, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Rulers were devotees of both Hindu deities and Buddhism of the Mahayana variety.” §REF§ (Miksic 2004: 863) Miksic, J., 'Mataram', in Ooi, K.G., Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-Clio, 2004. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WVEHV2M9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WVEHV2M9 </b></a> §REF§ NB the following quote refers to a disputed theory of a line of kings of Saivist tradition. Recently such theory has been challenged showing their support for Buddhist monasteries. “The merging of the two families through marriage, as proposed in the two-dynasty theory, has recently also been questioned, as has the idea that all the kings of the Sanjaya line were Saivites. Interestingly, the Wanua Tengah III inscription mentions a number of them explicitly as supporters of a Buddhist monastery.” §REF§ (Klokke 2016: online) Klokke, M. J. (2016). Central Javanese Empire (Early Mataram). In J. Mackenzie (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NVK2U3GA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NVK2U3GA </b></a> §REF§ “One could, in accordance with the two-dynasty theory, start from the idea that Balitung only mentions the indigenous Śaivite rulers who preceded him. The conclusion from the Wanua Tengah III inscription would be that some of these Śaivite rulers contributed to Buddhist monastery and supported Buddhism and others did not, and that those who did were probably pressured to do so by the Śailendra kings who were their overlords. One could also, in accordance with the single-line theory, start from the idea that Balitung tries to link himself with the kings of Central Java, whether Hindu or Buddhist, and whether belonging to the Śailendra dynasty or other families. And would not King Balitung, by restoring a grant to a Buddhist monastery to protect himself and his position, associate himself also with the important Śailendra kings, builders of many Buddhist temples? Although this is not the only possible interpretation, one could start from the hypothesis that the kings who established, maintained and restored the sīma to the benefit of the monastery were Buddhist kings and those who dissolved it or kept it dissolved were Hindu kings.\" §REF§ (Klokke 2008: 156) Klokke, Marijke I. “The Buddhist Temples of the Śailendra Dynasty in Central Java.” Arts Asiatiques, vol. 63, 2008, pp. 154–67. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N9KJK895\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N9KJK895 </b></a> §REF§ “The ancient Mataram Kingdom initially had developed in the central part of the Java region, and according to the Canggal inscription dated 732 AD, the kingdom was ruled by King Sanjaya, who was the first king to adhere to Hindu-saiva (Poerbatjaraka, 1952, pp. 49–58). […] The inscriptions also show that the kings ruling Mataram were the family members of King Śailendra or Śailendravamsa. This dynasty is often related to Buddha Mahayana, because the term Śailendravamsa was used for the first time in the Kalasan inscription (700 Saka/778 AD), and King Śailendra apparently adopted the principles of the Buddha Mahayana. Here, we agree with the opinions of experts from previous studies that rebutted the theory of the two dynasties, “Sanjayavamsa” and “Śailendravamsa” existing in the central part of Java from the 8th to 10th century. Nevertheless, only the Śailendravamsa dynasty existed in this period, and some members practiced Hindu-saiva, whereas others practiced Buddha Mahayana.” §REF§ (Munandar 2017: 661-662) Munandar, A.A. (2017), “Ancient religious artworks in Central Java (8th–10th century AD)”, in Budianta, Melani, Budiman, Manneke, Kusno, Abidin, Moriyama, Mikihiro. Culutral Dynamics in a Globalized World (London and New York: Routledge), pp.661-668. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PSERXVCV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PSERXVCV </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 207, "polity": { "id": 234, "name": "et_ethiopian_k", "long_name": "Ethiopia Kingdom", "start_year": 1270, "end_year": 1620 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Under the new dynasty's banner, Ethiopia expanded southward, confirming Amharic and Christianity as integral parts of the imperial tradition dominating the government until late in the twentieth century.\"§REF§(Marcus 1994, 19) Harold G Marcus. 1994. A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press. Berkley.§REF§" }, { "id": 208, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 177, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopo-Sabaean Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The word \"prevailed\" in the following quote may be interpreted as suggesting that the Ethiopo-Sabaean cult was the official religion, as well as the one followed by the elites. \"For hundreds of years prior to the local advent of Christianity, it seems that a form or forms of polytheistic belief-system analogous – but by no means identical – to that known to have been established in southern Arabia prevailed also in the northern Horn. Although the deities’ names indicated by the known inscriptions are – with one exception – different, use of the crescent-and-disc symbol – known in earlier times on altars and incense-burners in both southern Arabia and the northern Horn (cf. Chapter 3) – was continued in pre-Christian Aksumite times on coins and on the Anza and Matara stelae (Chapter 6 and 7 respectively), which have been dated to the third century on palaeographic grounds.\"§REF§(Phillipson 2012: 91) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3CGX9GMX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3CGX9GMX </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 210, "polity": { "id": 210, "name": "et_aksum_emp_2", "long_name": "Axum II", "start_year": 350, "end_year": 599 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Despite royal enthusiasm for the new religion, and its adoption within court circles, Christianity took root slowly in the rural districts of the two kingdoms.\" §REF§(Haas 2008: 116) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IQWD9I5I\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IQWD9I5I </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 211, "polity": { "id": 213, "name": "et_aksum_emp_3", "long_name": "Axum III", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 212, "polity": { "id": 788, "name": "et_ethiopian_k_3", "long_name": "Ethiopia Kingdom III", "start_year": 1769, "end_year": 1854 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Under the new dynasty's banner, Ethiopia expanded southward, confirming Amharic and Christianity as integral parts of the imperial tradition dominating the government until late in the twentieth century.\"§REF§(Marcus 1994, 19) Harold G Marcus. 1994. A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press. Berkley.§REF§" }, { "id": 213, "polity": { "id": 789, "name": "et_ethiopian_k_2", "long_name": "Ethiopia Kingdom II", "start_year": 1621, "end_year": 1768 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Under the new dynasty's banner, Ethiopia expanded southward, confirming Amharic and Christianity as integral parts of the imperial tradition dominating the government until late in the twentieth century.\"§REF§(Marcus 1994, 19) Harold G Marcus. 1994. A History of Ethiopia. University of California Press. Berkley.§REF§" }, { "id": 214, "polity": { "id": 790, "name": "et_habesha", "long_name": "Habesha", "start_year": 801, "end_year": 1136 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The decline of Aksum did not immediately result in either the disappearance of its kings or the waning of Christian influence in the highlands of Ethiopia. Numerous traditions appear to indicate that from the seventh century onward the center of gravity of the Christian kingdom moved southward. Although it is impossible to follow this expansion of the kingdom and church in any detail, both Arabic and Ethiopian sources portray the ninth century as a time of military campaigns, church building, and evangelization as far south as the Amhara region. Thus, Aksumite culture survived and even spread into regions not under its influence during its heyday.\" §REF§(Kaplan 1992: 42) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PT9MJQBE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PT9MJQBE </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 215, "polity": { "id": 227, "name": "et_zagwe", "long_name": "Zagwe", "start_year": 1137, "end_year": 1269 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 71, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Ever since the introduction of Christianity in the fourth century, the church has been closely related to the state. The former was dependent on the kings for its material needs, while the ruling elite needed the church to legitimate its rule. […] Aware of their precarious ideological position, the Zagwe rulers had made it known that they were, as well, descendants from Israel but from the house of Moses (Hable-Selassie 1972). It is rather tempting to argue that the commitment of the Zagwe rulers to the construction of churches and their strict adherence to the Orthodox faith were a response to those contesting their legitimacy to rule. Three of the four kingly saints canonized by the Ethiopian Church were from the Zagwe Dynasty. It is probable that the Zagwe were challenged not so much by the Ethiopian Church, but more by the Tigrean ruling elite, who evolved and developed the myth of the Solomonic Dynasty.” §REF§(Negash, 2006 no page number) Negash, T. 2006. The Zagwe period re-interpreted: post-Aksumite Ethiopian urban culture. Africa: Rivista Trimestrale di Studi e Documentazioni 61(1): 120-137. Seshat URL: https://www.zotero.org/enricocioni/items/WGTE6WKE/library §REF§\r\n\r\n\"Although the Zagwe rulers were apparently devout Christians and presided over a major revival of the church, their enemies, including the nobility of Tigre province and the clergy of the Aksumite region, dismissed them as usurpers who had seized the throne of the legitimate Aksumite \"Solomonic\" rulers. The Zagwe sought to counter such claims by wooing the clergy of other regions and engaging in a massive program of church building in their home province of Lasta.\" §REF§(Kaplan 1992: 53) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PT9MJQBE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PT9MJQBE </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 216, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The difference between the basic types of Shi’ism is clearly indicated by the distinct histories of tow Shi’i groups that held some power in Abbasid Iran after its tenth-century breakdown into autonomous states – the Twelver Buyid dynasty and the Ismaili Assassins. The Buyids, who ruled western Iran and Iraq (including for a time the Abbasid capital of Baghdad) from 945 to 1055, never tried to set up a Twelver Shi’a state or impose Shi’i but supported the religious claims of the Abbasid Caliph, whom they could have deposed.” §REF§ (Keddie 2011, 205-206) Keddie, Nikki R. 2011. ‘Iran: Religious Orthodoxy and Heresyin Political Culture.’ In Religion and Societies. Edited by Carlo Caldarola. Berlin: de Gruyter. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3D88ZJFZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3D88ZJFZ </b></a> §REF§ “The Buyid solution seems markedly cynical and opportunist, but also tolerant and pacific in its chose compromise. The Shi’ite, Buyid military rulers were to coexist with the Sunni, Abbasid caliphs, who continued to command the loyalty of most Muslims. Each side would recognise the other and give it legitimacy. Thus the Buyids adopted and largely gave shape to the main ‘Twelver’ subdivision of Shi’ism, in which the twelfth ‘leader’ is held to have disappeared.” §REF§ (Baldick 2004, 357-358) Baldick, Julian. 2004. ‘Islam in Iran.’ In The World’s Religions. Edited by Peter Clarke et al. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GE3635QM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GE3635QM </b></a> §REF§ “The Buyids were not experienced in administering such a vast region with different provinces and therefore they needed the advice of good and experienced viziers. The first advice was to keep the office of the ‘Abbasid caliph because, on the one hand, it had great religious significance for the public and on the other hand, as adherents of Shi’ism, the Buyids could not rule the Sunni majority of Baghdad. However, they restricted the authority of the Sunni caliph to religious affairs.” §REF§ (Elkaisy-Friemuth 2006, 12) Elkaisy-Friemuth, Maha. 2006. God and Humans in Islamic Thought: ‘Abd al-Jabbar, Ibn Sina and al-Ghazal. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QUK6FFN6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QUK6FFN6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 217, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "start_year": 1227, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The next Chaghatayid to claim the throne was Naliqo’a (r. 1308/9), a grandson of Buri. Kebek, the youngest son of Du’a challenged him not only because he felt that Du’a’s line should reign, he also found support among others who opposed Naliqo’a’s Muslim faith and Islamic policies.” […] “Eljigidei’s brief reign, however, tended to favour Buddhist and Christians over Muslims, showing that Islam had yet to become a dominant element among the Mongols of Central Asia.” […] “The reign (1330-1) of Kebek’s successor Dore Temur, was too brief for it to make any substantial impact, but the rise of Tarmashirin (r. 1331-4) marked a distinct shift. The brother of Kebek, Eljigiedei, and Dore Temur, Tarmashirin converted from Buddhism to Islam. Although he was not the first Muslim Chaghatayid (see Mubarak Shah and Naliqo’a), his conversion altered Chaghatayid policies. His conversion did not mean an immediate change, but he preferred Muslim regions and actively encouraged proselytization. Although Muslims existed north of the Syr Darya, Tarmashirin, like Kebek, preferred to dwell in Mawarannahr, which became the political centre of the empire as well.” […] “While Buzan claimed the Khanate other pretenders appeared, including Ogodeids and even a Toluid. In 1335, the Buddhist Changshi (r. 1335-7), Du’a’s grandson, took the throne. He returned the capital to its traditional location at Almaliq. Although he was a devout Buddhist, Christians also found favour during his reign, although it is alleged he ‘had [Buddhist] images painted in all the mosques in the ulus.’” […] “Into this arose Ali Sultan (r. 1340-?), an Ogodeid. Unlike Tarmashirin, he was a fanatical Muslim who persecuted the Christians of Almaliq (his treatment of Buddhists is unmentioned). While his faith played a role, his usurpation played a greater role in his overthrow of all his successors were Muslims.” […] “Again demonstrating that conversion and acceptance was a slow process, roughly fifteen years after the death of Tarmashirin, Islam became the primary religion of the entire khanate. The Chaghatayid Khan, Tughluq Temur (r. 1347-63), converted to Islam under the tutelage of the relatively minor Sufi Kataki tariqa. Allegedly a large number of nomads followed suit, finally transforming Moghulistan into a Muslim majority.” […] “Although the Chaghatayids (both elites and non-elites) remained largely nomadic, increased contact with the urban centres of Mawarannahr and in the Steppes such as Almaliq and Qayaliq exposed them to Muslim communities, leading them to convert in the same way in which the Oghuz and Qarluq Turks converted in the tenth and eleventh centuries.” […] “Mubarak Shah was the first Muslim Chaghatayid, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that his faith may have been one reason why the Chaghatayid noyad gravitated to other princes such as Algun and Baraq. Only slightly more than a decade had passed since the death of Chaghadai, with his well-known devotion to yasa and yosun and his antipathy towards Muslims. This is not to say that religion and tradition were the only factors; both Alghu and Baraq possessed military skills superior to those of the youthful Mubarak Shah. Despite this, Islam had some influence oven among the non-believers, as Baraq allegedly converted on his deathbed. While Islam surely found converts after Baraq among the Mongols, it wasn’t until the 1330s that it truly became a political factor. DeWeese suggests that during this period some used Islam as a method of gaining support in a rather contentious political environment.” §REF§ (May 2016, 270-277) May, Timothy. 2016. The Mongol Empire. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RFIT98TS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RFIT98TS </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 218, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "start_year": 1227, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The next Chaghatayid to claim the throne was Naliqo’a (r. 1308/9), a grandson of Buri. Kebek, the youngest son of Du’a challenged him not only because he felt that Du’a’s line should reign, he also found support among others who opposed Naliqo’a’s Muslim faith and Islamic policies.” […] “Eljigidei’s brief reign, however, tended to favour Buddhist and Christians over Muslims, showing that Islam had yet to become a dominant element among the Mongols of Central Asia.” […] “The reign (1330-1) of Kebek’s successor Dore Temur, was too brief for it to make any substantial impact, but the rise of Tarmashirin (r. 1331-4) marked a distinct shift. The brother of Kebek, Eljigiedei, and Dore Temur, Tarmashirin converted from Buddhism to Islam. Although he was not the first Muslim Chaghatayid (see Mubarak Shah and Naliqo’a), his conversion altered Chaghatayid policies. His conversion did not mean an immediate change, but he preferred Muslim regions and actively encouraged proselytization. Although Muslims existed north of the Syr Darya, Tarmashirin, like Kebek, preferred to dwell in Mawarannahr, which became the political centre of the empire as well.” […] “While Buzan claimed the Khanate other pretenders appeared, including Ogodeids and even a Toluid. In 1335, the Buddhist Changshi (r. 1335-7), Du’a’s grandson, took the throne. He returned the capital to its traditional location at Almaliq. Although he was a devout Buddhist, Christians also found favour during his reign, although it is alleged he ‘had [Buddhist] images painted in all the mosques in the ulus.’” […] “Into this arose Ali Sultan (r. 1340-?), an Ogodeid. Unlike Tarmashirin, he was a fanatical Muslim who persecuted the Christians of Almaliq (his treatment of Buddhists is unmentioned). While his faith played a role, his usurpation played a greater role in his overthrow of all his successors were Muslims.” […] “Again demonstrating that conversion and acceptance was a slow process, roughly fifteen years after the death of Tarmashirin, Islam became the primary religion of the entire khanate. The Chaghatayid Khan, Tughluq Temur (r. 1347-63), converted to Islam under the tutelage of the relatively minor Sufi Kataki tariqa. Allegedly a large number of nomads followed suit, finally transforming Moghulistan into a Muslim majority.” […] “Although the Chaghatayids (both elites and non-elites) remained largely nomadic, increased contact with the urban centres of Mawarannahr and in the Steppes such as Almaliq and Qayaliq exposed them to Muslim communities, leading them to convert in the same way in which the Oghuz and Qarluq Turks converted in the tenth and eleventh centuries.” […] “Mubarak Shah was the first Muslim Chaghatayid, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that his faith may have been one reason why the Chaghatayid noyad gravitated to other princes such as Algun and Baraq. Only slightly more than a decade had passed since the death of Chaghadai, with his well-known devotion to yasa and yosun and his antipathy towards Muslims. This is not to say that religion and tradition were the only factors; both Alghu and Baraq possessed military skills superior to those of the youthful Mubarak Shah. Despite this, Islam had some influence oven among the non-believers, as Baraq allegedly converted on his deathbed. While Islam surely found converts after Baraq among the Mongols, it wasn’t until the 1330s that it truly became a political factor. DeWeese suggests that during this period some used Islam as a method of gaining support in a rather contentious political environment.” §REF§ (May 2016, 270-277) May, Timothy. 2016. The Mongol Empire. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RFIT98TS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RFIT98TS </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 219, "polity": { "id": 296, "name": "uz_chagatai_khanate", "long_name": "Chagatai Khanate", "start_year": 1227, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 112, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mongolian Shamanism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The next Chaghatayid to claim the throne was Naliqo’a (r. 1308/9), a grandson of Buri. Kebek, the youngest son of Du’a challenged him not only because he felt that Du’a’s line should reign, he also found support among others who opposed Naliqo’a’s Muslim faith and Islamic policies.” […] “Eljigidei’s brief reign, however, tended to favour Buddhist and Christians over Muslims, showing that Islam had yet to become a dominant element among the Mongols of Central Asia.” […] “The reign (1330-1) of Kebek’s successor Dore Temur, was too brief for it to make any substantial impact, but the rise of Tarmashirin (r. 1331-4) marked a distinct shift. The brother of Kebek, Eljigiedei, and Dore Temur, Tarmashirin converted from Buddhism to Islam. Although he was not the first Muslim Chaghatayid (see Mubarak Shah and Naliqo’a), his conversion altered Chaghatayid policies. His conversion did not mean an immediate change, but he preferred Muslim regions and actively encouraged proselytization. Although Muslims existed north of the Syr Darya, Tarmashirin, like Kebek, preferred to dwell in Mawarannahr, which became the political centre of the empire as well.” […] “While Buzan claimed the Khanate other pretenders appeared, including Ogodeids and even a Toluid. In 1335, the Buddhist Changshi (r. 1335-7), Du’a’s grandson, took the throne. He returned the capital to its traditional location at Almaliq. Although he was a devout Buddhist, Christians also found favour during his reign, although it is alleged he ‘had [Buddhist] images painted in all the mosques in the ulus.’” […] “Into this arose Ali Sultan (r. 1340-?), an Ogodeid. Unlike Tarmashirin, he was a fanatical Muslim who persecuted the Christians of Almaliq (his treatment of Buddhists is unmentioned). While his faith played a role, his usurpation played a greater role in his overthrow of all his successors were Muslims.” […] “Again demonstrating that conversion and acceptance was a slow process, roughly fifteen years after the death of Tarmashirin, Islam became the primary religion of the entire khanate. The Chaghatayid Khan, Tughluq Temur (r. 1347-63), converted to Islam under the tutelage of the relatively minor Sufi Kataki tariqa. Allegedly a large number of nomads followed suit, finally transforming Moghulistan into a Muslim majority.” […] “Although the Chaghatayids (both elites and non-elites) remained largely nomadic, increased contact with the urban centres of Mawarannahr and in the Steppes such as Almaliq and Qayaliq exposed them to Muslim communities, leading them to convert in the same way in which the Oghuz and Qarluq Turks converted in the tenth and eleventh centuries.” […] “Mubarak Shah was the first Muslim Chaghatayid, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that his faith may have been one reason why the Chaghatayid noyad gravitated to other princes such as Algun and Baraq. Only slightly more than a decade had passed since the death of Chaghadai, with his well-known devotion to yasa and yosun and his antipathy towards Muslims. This is not to say that religion and tradition were the only factors; both Alghu and Baraq possessed military skills superior to those of the youthful Mubarak Shah. Despite this, Islam had some influence oven among the non-believers, as Baraq allegedly converted on his deathbed. While Islam surely found converts after Baraq among the Mongols, it wasn’t until the 1330s that it truly became a political factor. DeWeese suggests that during this period some used Islam as a method of gaining support in a rather contentious political environment.” §REF§ (May 2016, 270-277) May, Timothy. 2016. The Mongol Empire. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RFIT98TS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RFIT98TS </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 220, "polity": { "id": 287, "name": "uz_samanid_emp", "long_name": "Samanid Empire", "start_year": 819, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Religiously, there is no substantial evidence to suggest that the Samanids were anything but orthodox Hanafi Sunnis; it should be noted that there was a brief flirtation by certain elements of the Samanid military (particularly a general named al-Husain al-Marwazi) with Isma’ili Shi‘i preachers in the 920s, but by and large Shi‘is and heterodox groups were considered anathema by the authorities.\" §REF§Mitchell, C.P. 2006. Samanids. In Meri, J.W. and Bacharach (eds) Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia pp. 691-693. New York: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DEU4G64K\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DEU4G64K </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 221, "polity": { "id": 465, "name": "uz_khwarasm_1", "long_name": "Ancient Khwarazm", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -521 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 181, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Khwarazm Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“About 400 settlements of the archaic period have been recorded within the confines of ancient Chorasmia, but only at Kyuzeli-gyr, on the left bank of the Oxus, have ruins of a fortified town been excavated. It flourished throughout the 6th century and the first half of the 5th century B.C.E. The hill site encompasses more than 25 ha, and the circumference of the fortification walls was about 3 km (Tolstov, 1962, pp. 96-104). The lower part of the fortress was not built up and probably served as a refuge for inhabitants of the surrounding territory in times of danger and as an enclosure for cattle. Higher up in the town dwellings were arrayed along the walls. The palace, covering an area of 1 ha, was also located in the upper town; about twenty dwellings and courtyards were excavated there. One spacious hall with six piers and several large fireplaces had been carefully rebuilt several times; it was clearly used for ceremonials and banquets.” §REF§ (Rapoport 2011, no page number) Yuri Aleksandrovich Rapoport, “CHORASMIA i. Archeology and pre-Islamic history,” Encyclopædia Iranica, V/5, pp. 511-516, available online at http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/chorasmia-i (accessed on 29 November 2022). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/U6KVVRI3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: U6KVVRI3 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 222, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 182, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Andronovan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The horse was the main cult animal among the Andronovans, which is indicated by sculptures and representations of horses on Kazakhstan petroglyphs, and also horse burials or skins with the head and legs that substituted for them in rituals and Andronovo status burials of the Sintashta, Petrovka and Alakul’ types. […] On the basis of horse bone measurements made by V. I. Gromova (Sal’nikov 1951b: 124) and V. I. Tsalkin (1972b: 74-77) it has been established that the Andronovans bred three breeds of horses: small, up to 128-136cm at the withers; average and tall, up to 136-152cm high, weighing 350kg, thin-legged and semithin-legged. In addition, for the first time in Eurasia we have very large horses (152-160cm), thin and semi-thin legged and distinctly graceful: these were the horses that were placed in elite burials (Sal’nikov 1951b: 123).[…] There are graves in such kurgans that measure 3.2x2.5m, 2.3m deep; their walls were covered with a frame-work of large logs, covered by a layer of logs which is sometimes double. These graves were unfortunately robbed in antiquity but there we still find numerous bones of animals, gold ornaments dropped by robbers, bronze knives, maces, horse cheek- pieces, sets of arrows, all of which prove the former richness of the burial. (The same differences in the sizes of the kurgans and graves are found in early Fedorovo burials, but the absence here of corresponding grave goods diminishes our results). One conclusion must be evident: Andronovo society was not uniform; there was a group of people who occupied a privileged position.” §REF§ (Kuz’mina 2007: 149, 197) Kuz’mina, Elena Efimovna, 2007. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians (Leiden: Brill). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/S3E76VIZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: S3E76VIZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 468, "name": "uz_sogdiana_city_states", "long_name": "Sogdiana - City-States Period", "start_year": 604, "end_year": 711 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Sogdian religion was a local form of Mazdeism, but it was also syncretic, having absorbed Hellenic and Indian influences. Fire alters were an important feature of the local religion as in the state of Zoroastrianism of Sasanian Iran. But there does not seem to have been an organized state religion in Sogdiana, rather tolerance was practiced and Manichaean and Nestorian Christianity made converts among the Sogdians.” §REF§ (Frye and Litvinsky 1994, 467) Frye, Richard N. and Litvinsky, Boris A. 1994. ‘The Northern Nomads, Sogdiana and Chorasmia.’ In History of Humanity: From the Seventh Century B.C. to the Seventh Century A.D. Vol. III. Edited by J. Herrmann and E. Zurcher. Paris: UNESCO Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WW8P2A7R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WW8P2A7R </b></a> §REF§ “There was no centralized state system in Sogd. The Sogdian states formed a kind of confederacy, while each one of them had its own ruling dynasty. This system existed until the end of the seventh century. Sogd did not have an organized state religion, although the majority of its population adhered to Mazdeism and Zurvanism [a sect of Zoroastrianism/Mazdeism], which included some Hellenistic and Indian Buddhist influences. There was also a religious tolerance towards other cults (such as Nestorianism and Manichaeism).” §REF§ (Zhivkov 2015: 225) Zhivkov, Boris. 2015. Khazaria in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. (Leiden: Brill). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V8KA2GID\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V8KA2GID </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 469, "name": "uz_janid_dyn", "long_name": "Khanate of Bukhara", "start_year": 1599, "end_year": 1747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Bukharan Khans became patrons of the arts, builders of great monuments, supporters of seminaries and mosques, and Sunni orthodox promoters.” §REF§ (Stanley 2007, 97) Stanley, Bruce. 2007. ‘Bukhara’. In Cities of the Middle East and North Africa. Edited by Michael Dumper and Bruce Stanley. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DBHZ2R49\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DBHZ2R49 </b></a> §REF§ “[t]he Ashtarkhanid Uzbeks were a Sunni dynasty, among the last descendants of Genghis Khan in Transoxiana;” §REF§ (Ziad 2021, 33) Ziad, Waleed. 2021. Hidden Caliphate: Sufi Saints Beyond the Oxus and Indus. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5VSH96D6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5VSH96D6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 370, "name": "uz_timurid_emp", "long_name": "Timurid Empire", "start_year": 1370, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 10, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sufi Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "According to expert Blake Pye and A. Azfar Moin, \"the societal elite did have a tendency toward Sufism and especially Sufi philosophy. See Binbaş, Ilker Evrim. Intellectual Networks in Timurid Iran: Sharaf al-Din 'Ali Yazdi and the Islamicate Republic of Letters. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.\"\r\n\r\n“[…] the influence of Sufis was consolidated by Timurid elite support. […] through their patronage of Sufi khanaqah buildings, Timurid women of the ruling class played an equally significant role in solidifying the social and institutional power of Sufi Islam in medieval Afghanistan.” §REF§ (Arbabzadah 2017, 57) Arbabzadah, Nushin. 2017. ‘Women and Religious Patronage in the Timurid Empire’. In Afghanistan’s Islam: From Conversion to Taliban. Edited by Nile Green. California: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KBM95D9K\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KBM95D9K </b></a> §REF§ “Al-Qayini was the author of numerous works, in both Arabic and Persian, and al-Dashtbayadi enumerates those written, presumably before 1425, according to their subject matter.They are mainly on the religious sciences of jurisprudence and the Traditions, and include works of a homiletic nature. The separate rubric for works on Sufism and the references under it to the works of the Hanbalite Sufi and traditionist, ‘Abdullah Ansari, illustrate the combination of Sunnism and Sufism that characterized the religious outlook of the Timurid religious intelligentsia.” §REF§ (Subtelny and Khalidov 1995, 221) Subtelny, Maria Eva and Khalidov, Anas B. 1995. ‘The Curriculum of Islamic Higher Learning in Timurid Iran in the Light of the Sunni Revival under Shāh-Rukh’. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol 115.2. Pp. 210-36. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/577AQ2HU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 577AQ2HU </b></a> §REF§ “Gawhar Shad, the most famous Timurid woman, supported normative Sunni Islam by funding the building of two major Friday mosques. As already mentioned, other Timurid women of the ruling class helped the solidification of Sufi Islam through their patronage of khanaqahs and mausoleum shrines.” §REF§ (Arbabzadah 2017, 57) Arbabzadah, Nushin. 2017. ‘Women and Religious Patronage in the Timurid Empire’. In Afghanistan’s Islam: From Conversion to Taliban. Edited by Nile Green. California: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KBM95D9K\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KBM95D9K </b></a> §REF§ “This female patronage of Sufi khanaqahs occurred at a time when Sufi Islam was in the process of establishing itself in the region under the protection of the Timurid elite.” §REF§ (Arbabzadah 2017, 62) Arbabzadah, Nushin. 2017. ‘Women and Religious Patronage in the Timurid Empire’. In Afghanistan’s Islam: From Conversion to Taliban. Edited by Nile Green. California: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KBM95D9K\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KBM95D9K </b></a> §REF§ “[…] shrines bear witness to the interest in and support for Sufi institutions among ruling Timurid men; their women echoed and expanded this pattern of religious endowments.” §REF§ (Arbabzadah 2017, 65) Arbabzadah, Nushin. 2017. ‘Women and Religious Patronage in the Timurid Empire’. In Afghanistan’s Islam: From Conversion to Taliban. Edited by Nile Green. California: University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KBM95D9K\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KBM95D9K </b></a> §REF§ “In Persia mystics are not normally called sufi, but the fact remains that contemporary Persian sources use the word to denote certain Safavid murids, and in particular, to cite one example, to denote the seven dervishes who accompanied Isma'il when he left Gilan and the reinforcements he subsequently received during the march from Lahljan to Tarum; later on the term was also used to denote those members of the Safavid cofraternity who were intimates of the shah, i.e. the Sbabisavant, especially those from the Shamlu, Rumlu and Qajar tribes.” §REF§ (Amoretti 1986, 637) Amoretti, B.S. 1986. ‘Religion in the Timurid and Safavid Periods’. In The Cambridge History of Iran in Seven Volumes. Edited by Peter Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/Q5K4AIN4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: Q5K4AIN4 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 282, "name": "kg_western_turk_khaganate", "long_name": "Western Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 582, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 171, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Tengrism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“There seem to have been shamans among the Türks. Byzantine sources say that the Türks had priests who foretold the future, and these priests intervened when a Byzantine envoy and his attendants pass between two fires, in order to purify them. […] The Byzantine sources also tell us that the Türks had a holy mountain, noted for its abundance of fruits and pastures and immunity to epidemics and earthquakes. […] We are futher informed by the Byzantine historians that the Türks hold fire in the most extraordinary respect, and also venerate air, water and earth, but do not worship and call ‘god’ anyone except the creator of heaven and earth: to him they sacrifice horses, oxen and sheep.” §REF§ (Baldick 2012: 39) Baldick, Julian. Animal and Shaman: Ancient Religions of Central Asia. (New York: NYU Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/J53ZA45U\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: J53ZA45U </b></a> §REF§ “From the ancient TÜRK EMPIRES through the Mongol Empire, the peoples of Mongolia worshiped “Eternal Heaven” (möngke tenggeri) and “Mother Earth,” named in ancient Mongolian prayers Mother Etüken. In later centuries Eternal Heaven had a varying relation with the “99 gods/heavens” divided into two camps, white to the west and red to the east, sometimes being one of the 99, sometimes the head of all of them, and sometimes a sort of summation of them.” §REF§ (Atwood 2004: 173) Atwood Christopher (2004). Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire (New York: Facts on File, Inc.). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CRA5UBH9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CRA5UBH9 </b></a> §REF§ “The religious beliefs of the Türk focused on a sky god, Tängri, and an earth goddess, Umay. Some of the Turks—notably the Western Turks in Tokharistan—converted very early to Buddhism, and it played an important role among them. Other religions were also influential, particularly Christianity and Manichaeism, which were popular among the Sogdians, close allies of the Türk who were skilled in international trade. Although the Sogdians were a settled, urban people, they were like the Türk in that they also had a Central Eurasian warrior ethos with a pervasive comitatus tradition, and both peoples were intensely interested in trade.” §REF§ (Beckwith 2009: 115) Beckwith, Christopher. I., 2009. EMPIRES OF THE SILK ROAD: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3RI3PUNK\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3RI3PUNK </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 350, "name": "af_greco_bactrian_k", "long_name": "Greco-Bactrian Kingdom", "start_year": -256, "end_year": -125 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 35, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Greek Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The coinage of the Greco-Bactrian kings displays a range of Greek deities (see, concisely, the discussion of Martinez-Sève 2010: 2–6; a browse through the catalogues Bopearachchi 1991, 1993, or 1998 will give an idea of the range of deities depicted on both Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek coins). Zeus was favoured by the Diodotids on their silver coinage (the eponymous ‘thundering Zeus’ of Holt 1999), with the pairs of Hermes and Athena, and Zeus and Artemis on the bronze coinage of Diodotos II. Euthydemos introduced a type of Herakles, used also by his son Demetrios I, and Eukratides employed the Dioskouroi. As I have already noted, the creators of paintings and statues in later temples (such as the ‘Temple of the Dioskouroi’ at Diberjin) could have drawn inspiration from such images on coins. As Martinez-Sève notes, all such depictions of apparently ‘Greek’ gods could have carried a double meaning, intentional or unintentional. Artemis, for example, could have been understood as the Near Eastern goddesses Anahita or Nana, or a local Bactrian equivalent (Martinez-Sève 2010: 5–7) §REF§ (Mairs 2015: 644-645) Mairs, Rachel, 2015. “Bactria and India”, in Eidinov, Esther and Julia Kindt (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Greek Religion (Oxford: Oxford University Press), pp.637-645. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QE37R7HS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QE37R7HS </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Islam and its civilization flourished under this dynasty, a fact attested by the devoutness of the rulers, their deference to men of religion, the endowments they made to pious foundations, and the monuments of religious as well as utilitarian architecture with which they embellished their realms.\" §REF§ (Soucek, S. 2000). \"A History of Inner Asia\" p. 85. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GNQIHZ4T\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GNQIHZ4T </b></a> §REF§ “In the mid-tenth century, the Karakhanids themselves adopted Islam and declared it to be the religion of their tribal society. They began to take Muslim names and , later, Muslim honorfics (alqab; pl of laqab).“ §REF§ (Davidovich 1998: 121) Davidovich, E.A. 1998. “The Karakhanids.“ In History of Civilizations of Central Asia. Paris: UNESCO Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/845KKZ4R\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 845KKZ4R </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 28, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Zoroastrianism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It appears that the Kidarites’ beliefs had not yet developed into a religious system, which must have encouraged (or at least not hindered) their receptiveness to the religious ideology they encountered in the lands they subdued – a local variety of Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism) in Tokharistan, various expressions of Buddhism and Hinduism in the territory of Gandhara and also, probably, the official Sasanian doctrine.” §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 133) Zeimal, E.V. 1996. ‘The Kidarite Kingdom in Central Asia.’ In History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. III: Crossroads of Civilizations AD 250 to 750. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3UHA39R7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3UHA39R7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 195, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinayana Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It appears that the Kidarites’ beliefs had not yet developed into a religious system, which must have encouraged (or at least not hindered) their receptiveness to the religious ideology they encountered in the lands they subdued – a local variety of Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism) in Tokharistan, various expressions of Buddhism and Hinduism in the territory of Gandhara and also, probably, the official Sasanian doctrine.” §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 133) Zeimal, E.V. 1996. ‘The Kidarite Kingdom in Central Asia.’ In History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. III: Crossroads of Civilizations AD 250 to 750. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3UHA39R7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3UHA39R7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 281, "name": "af_kidarite_k", "long_name": "Kidarite Kingdom", "start_year": 388, "end_year": 477 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 3, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“It appears that the Kidarites’ beliefs had not yet developed into a religious system, which must have encouraged (or at least not hindered) their receptiveness to the religious ideology they encountered in the lands they subdued – a local variety of Zoroastrianism (Mazdaism) in Tokharistan, various expressions of Buddhism and Hinduism in the territory of Gandhara and also, probably, the official Sasanian doctrine.” §REF§ (Zeimal 1996, 133) Zeimal, E.V. 1996. ‘The Kidarite Kingdom in Central Asia.’ In History of Civilizations of Central Asia Vol. III: Crossroads of Civilizations AD 250 to 750. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3UHA39R7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3UHA39R7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 196, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hawaiian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"As with all later Polynesians, the concepts of *\"mana\" (supernatural power) and *\"tapu\" (sanctity) were essential to the people of Hawaiki. *\"Mana\", the life-giving power that emanates from gods and ancestors, had to be carefully protected and channeled, which was one of the roles of the *\"ariki\", the leader of the major social group. The protection of *mana required *\"tapu\", various kinds of prohibitions, for example against touching the head of the *\"ariki\" and thus polluting him. §REF§Kirch, P.V. 2012. \"A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief : The Island Civilization of Ancient Hawaii\" p. 45. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NIIVVPB6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NIIVVPB6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 196, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hawaiian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"As with all later Polynesians, the concepts of *\"mana\" (supernatural power) and *\"tapu\" (sanctity) were essential to the people of Hawaiki. *\"Mana\", the life-giving power that emanates from gods and ancestors, had to be carefully protected and channeled, which was one of the roles of the *\"ariki\", the leader of the major social group. The protection of *mana required *\"tapu\", various kinds of prohibitions, for example against touching the head of the *\"ariki\" and thus polluting him. §REF§Kirch, P.V. 2012. \"A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief : The Island Civilization of Ancient Hawaii\" p. 45. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NIIVVPB6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NIIVVPB6 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 19, "name": "us_hawaii_3", "long_name": "Hawaii III", "start_year": 1580, "end_year": 1778 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 196, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hawaiian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"6. So also with the kings and chiefs, they addressed their worship to the gods who were active in the affairs that concerned them for they firmly believed that their god could destroy the king's enemies, safeguard him and prosper him with land and all sorts of blessings. 7. The manner of worship of the kings and chiefs was different from that of the common people. When the commoners performed religious services they uttered their prayers themselves, without the assistance of a priest or of a kahuakua. But when the king or an alii worshipped, the priest or the keeper of the idol uttered the prayers, while the alii only moved his lips and did not say a word. The same was true of the female chiefs; they did not utter the prayers to their gods.\" §REF§ (Malo 1951:81-84) Malo, David. 1951. Hawaiian Antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii). Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFSD4BUU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFSD4BUU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 235, "polity": { "id": 20, "name": "us_kamehameha_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1778, "end_year": 1819 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 196, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hawaiian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"6. So also with the kings and chiefs, they addressed their worship to the gods who were active in the affairs that concerned them for they firmly believed that their god could destroy the king's enemies, safeguard him and prosper him with land and all sorts of blessings. 7. The manner of worship of the kings and chiefs was different from that of the common people. When the commoners performed religious services they uttered their prayers themselves, without the assistance of a priest or of a kahuakua. But when the king or an alii worshipped, the priest or the keeper of the idol uttered the prayers, while the alii only moved his lips and did not say a word. The same was true of the female chiefs; they did not utter the prayers to their gods.\" §REF§ (Malo 1951:81-84) Malo, David. 1951. Hawaiian Antiquities (Moolelo Hawaii). Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WFSD4BUU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WFSD4BUU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 21, "name": "us_hawaii_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Hawaii - Post-Kamehameha Period", "start_year": 1820, "end_year": 1898 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 38, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Calvinist Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "In 1819, the \"kapu\" system on which the old Hawaiian religion had been based was abolished. It was made clear that \"kapu\" would not be reinstated (after the period of 'defilement' and free-eating following the death of Kamehameha I) when the regent queen Ka'ahūmanu ate with the young king, Liholiho, breaking the 'eating taboo' that forbade men and women to dine together.§REF§(Seaton 1974, 197) S. Lee Seaton. 1974. 'The Hawaiian \"Kapu\" Abolition of 1819'. \"American Ethnologist\" 1 (1): 193-206.§REF§ The high priest of the war god Kū, Hewahewa, then set fire to the god images and their sanctuaries,§REF§(Seaton 1974, 197) S. Lee Seaton. 1974. 'The Hawaiian Kapu Abolition of 1819'. \"American Ethnologist\" 1 (1): 193-206. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/6XJ6HTI6\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 6XJ6HTI6 </b></a>§REF§ so we cannot consider Native Hawaiian religion to be the 'state cult' for this polity. The period from 1819 to the mid-1820s was a period of religious transition. American Protestant missionaries had arrived in 1820, and their influence was felt in edicts issued by various chiefs, but we can date the adoption of Calvinist Christianity as the state religion to 1825 with the beginning of the reign of Kamehameha III.§REF§(Fish Kashay 2008, 18, 33-35) Jennifer Fish Kashay. 2008. 'From Kapus to Christianity: The Disestablishment of the Hawaiian Religion and Chiefly Appropriation of Calvinist Christianity'. \"Western Historical Quarterly\" 39 (1): 17-39. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N3UMVGD9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N3UMVGD9 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 35, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Greek Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Some of the conformity of Crete with the wider Greek world is, for example, the pantheon does not really become explicit until at least the Archaic period.” §REF§ (Haysom 2011, 102, 103) Haysom, Matthew. 2011. ‘The strangeness of Crete. Problems for the protohistory of Greek religion’. In Current approaches to religion in ancient Greece. Papers presented at a symposium at the Swedish Institute at Athens, 17-19 April 2008 (Stockholm, 2011). Edited by Matthew Haysom and Jenny Wallensten. Stockholm: Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Athen. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GHM2GRFX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GHM2GRFX </b></a> §REF§ “Although archaeologists have often viewed Cretan orientalizing culture in terms of class conflict and of positional elite and civic interests, activity at Praisian sanctuaries suggests a more complicated dynamic. Rather than following a predetermined and unchanging script, Cretans during this period had contingent social roles. Elites from Praisos at times stressed a connection to other elites outside the community through a common style. For example, at the Third Acropolis sanctuary, they dedicated bronzes similar to those at regional cult centers and the civic sanctuaries of other states. Since lavish dedications brought divine favor to the entire community, these bronzes probably did not trigger a counter reaction from the masses. Moreover, this was not an orientalizing culture in opposition to masses using a plain style. In fact, elites made only se lective use of Near Eastern iconography and styles. An exception was the Idaean cave, where a few impressive bronze dedications asserted an explicit link to the exotic world of foreign styles, craftsmen, and rituals. Here, Cretan participants defined themselves as part of an international elite. Within their borders, however, members of different poleis had occasions for emphasizing group solidarity, even if elites led these ceremonies. At Vavelli and Roussa Ekklesia, terracotta styles played a role in forming local identity while also incorporating diverse foreign influences. Architectural styles perhaps further distinguished Eteocretan Praisos as more open than other Cretan communities to Greek artistic conventions and culture” §REF§ (Erickson 2009, 389) Erickson, Brice. 2009. ‘Roussa Ekklesia, Part 1: Religion and Politics in East Crete’. In American Journal of Archaeology. Vol. 113:3. Pp. 353-404. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/8ATBFDFA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 8ATBFDFA </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"At the turn of the 9th century, Crete was abruptly changed from a Byzantine island into a small Islamic Sunni emirate, loosely connected with the Abbasid state (Christides, 1984; 2016). [...] Undoubtedly, as it happened in other Christian countries conquered by the Muslim Arabs, the Muslim community of the Andalusian conquerors of Crete, which was augmented by a great number of Muslim newcomers from other countries, established a legal system based on Muslim legislation.\" §REF§(Christides 2018: 1-5) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/3WIJU6JC\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 3WIJU6JC </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 69, "name": "gr_crete_hellenistic", "long_name": "Hellenistic Crete", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -69 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 126, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hellenistic Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 62, "name": "gr_crete_new_palace", "long_name": "New Palace Crete", "start_year": -1700, "end_year": -1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 197, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "New Palace Minoan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“With society’s increasing focus on the major palaces and administrative centers at the beginning of the Neopalatial period, control of public religion and cult practice may have become increasingly dominated by the palatial elite, especially at Knossos.” […] “The most vexing problem for students of Minoan Culture is the secure identification of rulers and gods. The goddess in the fresco from Xeste 3 Thera, attended by extraordinary animals and girls may correspond to Artemis (Known in Linear B), but other depicted divinities are difficult to identify by name. Because mythological animals such as griffins, sphinxes, Minoan genii, and winged agrimia logically belong to the divine world, the human figures they attend the seated woman amongst the crocus gatherers in Xeste 3, Akrotiri, and the male figure on the Benaki sealstone should be divinities. Without these mythological creatures, other humans in powerful poses such as the Commanding Gesture or being saluted by other humans are probably powerful mortals.” […] “The prominence of females in Neopalatial art, important mortal women, and goddesses (by the definition above), makes it possible to imagine that women dominated Neopalatial society, perhaps even politics. All human societies, however, ancient and modern, have been patriarchies with men in positions of authority; no matriarchy has ever been documented. But Neopalatial Crete offers the best candidate for matriarchy so far. If Neopalatial Crete was matriarchal, or partially so (in religious matters?), we might imagine that when the Myceneans took Crete over, presumably after LMIB, they imposed a patriarchal system, perhaps even violently, thus accounting for the LMIB destructions by fire and the concomitant loss of many Minoan art forms, many of which are religious.” §REF§ (Younger and Rehak 2008, 166, 181-182) Younger, John G. and Rehak, Paul. 2008. ‘Minoan Culture: Religion, Burial Customs and Administration.’ In The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X396WBPN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X396WBPN </b></a> §REF§ “From the Neopalatial Period there are many iconographic images of ritual scenes on seals, gold rings, stone vases, and frescoes, some of which include female figures identified as goddesses. In scenes where there is sufficient detail to permit identification of the participants, it is clear that they belong to the elite class. Alan Peatfield makes the point that the rings, seals, and stone vases were made of precious materials in palatial workshops for elite customers.” […] “The major popular ritual places, caves and peaks, were equipped with no images of the goddess at all, and independent shrines in settlements and towns have not been identified. In this period the image of the goddess as part of the ritual was an elite, palatial aspect of Minoan religion. The deity worshipped on peaks and in caves may have been represented by natural features or symbols; it was not represented in these places by an image.” §REF§ (Gesell 2004, 132, 133) Gesell, Geraldine C. 2004. ‘From Knossos to Kavousi: The Popularizing of the Minoan Palace Goddess.’ Hesperia Supplements. Vol. 33. Pp 131-150. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K936JC6D\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: K936JC6D </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 545, "name": "it_venetian_rep_4", "long_name": "Republic of Venice IV", "start_year": 1564, "end_year": 1797 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The majority of Venetians, nobles and commoners, probably held Catholic views in varying degrees of fervour without concerning themselves with doctrinal subtleties. […] some Venetians did hold Protestant views. From the late 1540s until the 1560s, several conventicles, whose membership included nobles as well as commoners and foreigners flourished. But none of these nobles carried sufficient political weight to move the government to make an overt move favoring the Protestant cause.” §REF§ (Grendler, 26-28) Grendler, Paul. 1977. The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press, 1540-1605. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZAZPNF9C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZAZPNF9C </b></a>§REF§“In addition to their fundamental Catholicism, the majority of the nobility accepted the widely held view that a change in religion led to the overthrow of the of the state. […] The church within Venetian borders was essentially a state church to be managed for the benefit of the Republic and the profit of the nobility.” §REF§ (Grendler, 29) Grendler, Paul. 1977. The Roman Inquisition and the Venetian Press, 1540-1605. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZAZPNF9C\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZAZPNF9C </b></a>§REF§“Far from this recent idealization, medieval and early modern guilds, usually founded and controlled by professional and mercantile élites, were sites of severe social conflicts that contributed to maintaining active discrimination against important sectors of the society: Jews, women, and foreigners.” §REF§ (Zannini, 219) Zannini, Andrea. 2020. ‘ Conflicts, social unease, and protests in the world of the Venetian guilds (sixteenth to eighteenth century)’. In Popular Politics in an Aristocratic Republic: Political Conflict and Social Contestation in Late Medieval and Early Modern Venice. Edited by Maartje van Gelder and Claire Judde de Larivière. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ECGSE548\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ECGSE548 </b></a>§REF§“As Venice emphasised the respectability and exclusive leadership capabilities of its patrician men, it was clear that Jewish men were not aristocrats.” §REF§ (Lauer, 573) Lauer, Rena. 2017. ‘In Defence of Bigamy: Colonial Policy, Jewish Law and Gender in Venetian Crete’. Gender and History. Vol. 29. No. 3. Pp. 570-588. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FEQACWD5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FEQACWD5 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 61, "name": "gr_crete_old_palace", "long_name": "Old Palace Crete", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 202, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Old Palace Minoan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote argues that there was probably hierarchy in Minoan society which played out during the religious rituals. “Few would disagree with the observation that the Central Court should foremost be seen as a constructed landscape, as an artificially created space for the enactment of ritual action, allowing certain ways of human interaction. Its layout and location leave no doubt that it was created to manipulate the visual perception and the communicative potential of particular rituals. The rituals could henceforth both be spatially and temporally controlled by anchoring them at a particular place; they were also obstructed from view through a construction of screen walls and, by giving them a specific environment, they were also given permanence and intensification. It is clear that this process implies an institutionalisation of one or more rituals and that this must have had tremendous social and political repercussions. It reflects the development of hierarchy in society through selection and exclusion, something also implied by the urban choreography discussed below.” §REF§ (Driessen 2004 77) Driessen, Jan. 2004. ‘The Central Court of the Palace at Knossos.’ British School at Athens Studies. Vol. 12. Pp 75-82. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NBC5PNFU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NBC5PNFU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 60, "name": "gr_crete_pre_palace", "long_name": "Prepalatial Crete", "start_year": -3000, "end_year": -1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 203, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Prepalatial Minoan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quote does not explicitly discuss religion but does give detail to the grave goods at the Prepalatial cemetery at the site of Mochlos. The quote highlights an example of elite burial and systems of religious belief via the incorporation of the grave goods within burials, suggesting funerary rites. “For example, Tomb I/II/III at Mochlos contained (1) gold jewelry, including beads, diadems, bands, hoops, small leaf-shaped pendants, leaves from sprays, and double-linked chains; (2) ivory objects, including inlay strips and seals, one of which incorporates imported ape iconography; (3) carnelian beads; (4) amethyst beads; and (5) a Syrian seal made of silver. In other words, almost all the types of imported objects, materials, and iconography imported to Crete from the Near East and Egypt during the Prepalatial period are represented in this single tomb, suggesting that the occupants of this tomb exercised considerable control over access to distant lands or served as the local contact for foreigners.” […] “The architectural context of many of these imports further confirms their role as symbols of power and elite identity. This is the case at Mochlos, where two of the three tombs in which exotica were ubiquitous (Tombs I/II/III and IV/V/VI) are subsequently larger and better built than the rest of the tombs on the island. Furthermore, they are located on the more prominent west terrace, which commands views of the sea and the mainland of Crete. The west terrace tombs are also more visible from the mainland than are the tombs on the south slope below; Soles has demonstrated that the west terrace tombs consist of three compartments, each with walls built entirely of stone, whereas most of the walls of the south slope tombs consist of mudbrick on stone socles […] Adding to the monumentality of tombs IV/V/VI is the forecourt, where funerary rituals or ceremonies may have taken place. This area incorporates a paved court and open air alter and, like the west terrace tombs themselves, includes a variety of colored stones in its construction.” […] “The association of imports with ritual objects provides additional evidence for the use of exotic imports as emblems by an emergent elite in Prepalatial Crete. For example, inside Funerary Building 19 at Archanes, imported ivory seals and pendants, as well as other pieces of jewelry, were found among a group of skulls placed on and around an altar. As noted by Maggidis, who recently published on this tomb, these objects were retained with the skulls during secondary burial, rather than being looted, swept aside, or discarded, which often occurred. This suggests that these objects may have been used as emblems or identity markers. The presence of liquid and food offerings and an anthropomorphic clay figurine on or near the alter further supports the elevated status of the individuals associated with the tomb.” §REF§ (Colburn 2008, 210-212) Colburn, Cynthia S. 2008. ‘Exotica and the Early Minoan Elite: Eastern Imports in Prepalatial Crete. American Journal of Archaeology. Vol. 112:2 Pp. 203-224. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RACKKD8N\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RACKKD8N </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 245, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Perhaps more decisive than the presence of the Inquisition and the police in Venice was the deeply Catholic piety of the majority of Venetians. Most Venetians, that is, continued to find meaning in the traditional teachings of the Catholic Church and to find considerable social support in the network of parishes, confraternities, and religious houses that were as much a part of the life of the city as the network of islands and canals that shaped their physical environment.”" }, { "id": 246, "polity": { "id": 65, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_2", "long_name": "Final Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 204, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Minoan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The importance of the public ceremonies would surely guarantee the according of special status to those who acted as intermediaries between the community and the supernatural powers.” §REF§ (Dickinson 1994, 259) Dickinson, Oliver. 1994. The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VSM3G42N\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VSM3G42N </b></a> §REF§ “The socio-political organisation detectable for LM IIIC advanced is that of autonomous entities, offering no evidence of subordination to a central authority. However, a kind of stratified society is to be recognised – at least on some sites – also on the basis of the cult evidence, which in cases such as Vasiliki /Kephala may be assumed as indicating the existence of a locally based central authority. […] As our knowledge of LM IIIC is still largely unsatisfactory, it remains unclear if the absence of cult buildings with large clay female figures in the Mesara reflects an ideological choice, or if it is due to a default in archaeological research. As a matter of fact, newly founded sites display cult buildings with clay figures, which do not represent a novelty for Crete, while old sites with strong continuity of habitation, like Phaistos and Knossos, show new cult patterns. It is also worth noting at where a sanctuary was monopolised by an elite, non-local features openly emerge, as is the case of Vasiliki/Kephala and Ayia Triada. It follows that the ruling elite also had some interest in connoting themselves with elements of mainland derivation, but at the same time it remains undeniable that there was indeed a certain material culture mixing and a relative lack of clearly stressed identities, which should imply a low level of social competition. […] In conclusion, even if we are to assume the arrival of groups from abroad, and mostly from the mainland during LM IIIB and early IIIC, by IIIC late opposition of an ethnic nature seems to have been superseded by the formation of an elite at the supra-local level clearly showing that it shares a common symbolic system. The cult assemblages of urban cult buildings and open-air sanctuaries controlled by elites, diverse as they may be, indicate that the ruling groups succeeded in establishing a common ideological structure, also founded on the use of common ritual objects, which constituted the material symbols of membership of this group. This low of contacts and interest in communication is confirmed by the emphasis assigned to communal feasting, which was functional to the definition and maintenance of relationships at both the local and the regional level.” §REF§ (D’Agata 2001, 353-354) D'Agata Anna Lucia. 2001. ‘Religion, Society and Ethnicity on Crete at the End of the Late Bronze Age. The Contextual Framework of LM IIIC Cult Activities’. In Potnia, Deities and Religion in the Aegean Bronze Age, Proceedings of the 8th International Aegean Conference Göteborg, Göteborg University, 12-15 April 2000, Liège: Universitè de Liège. Pp. 345-354. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/IZZA8MCZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: IZZA8MCZ </b></a> §REF§This quote refers to a larger area in the Mediterranean during the Postpalatial period and its necessary to justify the following one “The efforts of emerging elites in the postpalatial Mediterranean seem to have been more directed toward establishing genealogical links with the past through the acquisition and manipulation of surviving symbols of the Late Bronze Age or through establishing and maintaining social bonds and alliances through ritual drinking and/or feasting.” […] “Maran (2000: 115117; 2006; also Wright 1994) has suggested that monumental hearths were linked to a ceremonial and ritual ideology celebrating the wanax, and their absence or minimization in the Aegean IIIC world says something about a change in the level of political complexity following the demise of the palaces.” §REF§ (Hitchcock & Maeir 2017, 296, 299) Hitchcock, Louise A. and Maeir, Aren M. 2017. ‘Lost in Translation Settlement Organization in Postpalatial Crete—A View from the East’. In Minoan Architecture and Urbanism: New Perspectives on an Ancient Built Environment. Edited by Quentin Letesson and Carl Knappett. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KJ3IIASV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KJ3IIASV </b></a> §REF§ This quote refers to Mycenean culture which had a certain influence on Postpalatial Crete “In addition to his political and economic power, then, the wanax was also a religious leader, in the tradition of his Early Mycenaean predecessors, who gained authority through their control of organized religion and through emphasis on their own powerful ancestors (Chs. 10, pp.244–6, 248–9; 13,pp.339–40). Like the gods themselves he sometimes received offerings, for example of perfumed oil; but this association does not require us to believe that he had divine status himself, or that the term wanax referred to deities as well as human rulers in the Mycenaean period, as it did in the Homeric epics.” §REF§ (Shelmerdine & Bennet 2008, 293) Shelmerdine, Cynthia W. and Bennet, John. 2008. ‘Mycenean States: Economy and Administration’. In The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCF8RDB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FXCF8RDB </b></a> §REF§ This quote gives a different interpretation of Goddesses with Upraised Arms figurines “Chronological, archaeological, iconographic, and architectural observations suggest that the LM IIIB–C Goddesses with Upraised Arms were votive offerings rather than cult images. Their archaeological and historical context seems to indicate that the dominant social groups used the figures as identity markers to legitimate their power and make it publicly visible within the community, particularly during processions. This idea is reinforced by the survival of the figure with upraised arms, which stays closely connected to its votaries. […] After the collapse of the Knossian palatial system, a cult housed in incorporated Stand Shrines was used by local groups to constitute and define a new communal organization (see fig. 18, top). As these groups became more integrated into progressively larger collectives at newly established sites, shrines became externalized and the cult modified to include female figures that were representative of these different coalescent groups (see fig. 18, middle, bottom).” §REF§ (Gaignerot-Driessen 2014, 516) Gaignerot-Driessen, Florence. 2014. ‘Goddesses Refusing to Appear? Reconsidering the Late Minoan III Figures with Upraised Arms’. In American Journal of Archaeology. Vol 118:3. Pp. 489–520. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RQ5WEFUU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RQ5WEFUU </b></a> §REF§ The following quote refers to archaeological fundings at Karphi, a LM IIIC Cretan site. “I have argued elsewhere for the importance of the Great House as a center for elite social rituals, and its association with an area of religious ritual is interesting. The elite inhabiting the Great House may have claimed some religious authority in the community, assuming the area continued as a shrine. If, however, the Great House simply encroached on what had been an earlier shrine, one could speculate that the elite owners may have deliberately appropriated a formerly religious area for their own political reasons.” §REF§ (Preston Day 2009, 150) Preston Day, Leslie. 2009. ‘Ritual Activity at Karphi: A Reappraisal’. In Hesperia Supplements: Essays on Ritual and Cult in Crete in Honor of Geraldine C. Gesell. Athens: The American School of Classical Studies. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/APSF8BRI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: APSF8BRI </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 204, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Minoan Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The importance of the public ceremonies would surely guarantee the according of special status to those who acted as intermediaries between the community and the supernatural powers.” §REF§ (Dickinson 1994, 259) Dickinson, Oliver. 1994. The Aegean Bronze Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VSM3G42N\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VSM3G42N </b></a> §REF§ This quote justify the presence of the following one “These inscriptions do, together with KH Wc 43, bear witness to the fact that a wanax existed in Crete during the LM IIIB period, and the same inscribed stirrup jars, seem to indicate a clear connection between the wanax and western Crete.” §REF§ (Andreadaki-Vlasaki & Hallager 2007, 20) Andreadaki-Vlasaki, Maria and Hallager, Heric. 2007. ‘New and unpublished Linear A and Linear B inscriptions from Khania’. In Proceedings of the Danish Institute at Athens. Edited by Erik Hallager and Jesper Tae Jensen. Arhus: Arhus University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/PJK5QBV8\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: PJK5QBV8 </b></a> §REF§ This quote refers to Mycenean culture had a certain influence on Postpalatial Crete “In addition to his political and economic power, then, the wanax was also a religious leader, in the tradition of his Early Mycenaean predecessors, who gained authority through their control of organized religion and through emphasis on their own powerful ancestors (Chs. 10, pp.244–6, 248–9; 13,pp.339–40). Like the gods themselves he sometimes received offerings, for example of perfumed oil; but this association does not require us to believe that he had divine status himself, or that the term wanax referred to deities as well as human rulers in the Mycenaean period, as it did in the Homeric epics.” §REF§ (Shelmerdine & Bennet 2008, 293) Shelmerdine, Cynthia W. and Bennet, John. 2008. ‘Mycenean States: Economy and Administration’. In The Cambridge Companion to the Aegean Bronze Age. Edited by Cynthia W. Shelmerdine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FXCF8RDB\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FXCF8RDB </b></a> §REF§ This quote gives a different interpretation of Goddesses with Upraised Arms figurines “Chronological, archaeological, iconographic, and architectural observations suggest that the LM IIIB–C Goddesses with Upraised Arms were votive offerings rather than cult images. Their archaeological and historical context seems to indicate that the dominant social groups used the figures as identity markers to legitimate their power and make it publicly visible within the community, particularly during processions. This idea is reinforced by the survival of the figure with upraised arms, which stays closely connected to its votaries. […] After the collapse of the Knossian palatial system, a cult housed in incorporated Stand Shrines was used by local groups to constitute and define a new communal organization (see fig. 18, top). As these groups became more integrated into progressively larger collectives at newly established sites, shrines became externalized and the cult modified to include female figures that were representative of these different coalescent groups (see fig. 18, middle, bottom).” §REF§ (Gaignerot-Driessen 2014, 516) Gaignerot-Driessen, Florence. 2014. ‘Goddesses Refusing to Appear? Reconsidering the Late Minoan III Figures with Upraised Arms’. In American Journal of Archaeology. Vol 118:3. Pp. 489–520. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RQ5WEFUU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RQ5WEFUU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 105, "name": "il_yisrael", "long_name": "Yisrael", "start_year": -1030, "end_year": -722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 207, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Yahwism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“it appears that Yahwism began as an intellectual idea that circulated among the elite and well-educated members of society. The “high language” used by prophets such as Isaiah reveals the intellectual character of early Israelite religion and suggests this ideology was not readily available to all.” §REF§(Golden, 256) Golden, Jonathan Michael. Ancient Canaan and Israel: New Perspectives. Understanding Ancient Civilizations. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 2004. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5RKI68N7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5RKI68N7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 13, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Judaism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Josephus states that they [the Sadducees] were to be identified with the upper socioeconomic class (and thus not popular with the masses)” §REF§(Grabbe 212) Grabbe, Lester L. 2021. A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period. Volume 3: The Maccabaean Revolt, Hasmonaean Rule, and Herod the Great (175-4 BCE) / Lester L. Grabbe. Paperback edition. Library of Second Temple Studies 95. London New York Oxford New Delhi Sydney: T&T Clark. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4ZJC2CE5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4ZJC2CE5 </b></a> §REF§ “There may have been certain socio-economic differences between the groups, in that the Sadducees are said to have the support of the wealthy and prominent persons” §REF§(Grabbe 164) Grabbe, Lester L. 2021. A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period. Volume 3: The Maccabaean Revolt, Hasmonaean Rule, and Herod the Great (175-4 BCE) / Lester L. Grabbe. Paperback edition. Library of Second Temple Studies 95. London New York Oxford New Delhi Sydney: T&T Clark. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/4ZJC2CE5\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 4ZJC2CE5 </b></a> §REF§ “Scriptural interpretation was (from the indications of surviving sources) still in the hands of an elite; however, this elite ceased to be confined to the temple priesthood.” §REF§(Grabbe 152) Grabbe, Lester L. 2000. Judaic Religion in the Second Temple Period Belief and Practice from the Exile to Yavneh. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NKFIXZHF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NKFIXZHF </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 206, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Canaanite Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“in Sidon, she [Astarte] held the same prominent position, as inferred by the Sidonian royal inscriptions where temples for the two main gods of the city, Astarte and Eshmun …, are mentioned. In addition, the king and the queen were respectively high priest and high priestess of the goddess.” §REF§(Sader 184-5) Sader, Hélène S. 2019. The History and Archaeology of Phoenicia. Archaeology and Biblical Studies, Number 25. Atlanta: SBL Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/B9LYVUJ7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: B9LYVUJ7 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 35, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ancient Greek Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The adoption of Buddhism among the Indo-Greek elite classes is attested by the celebrated conversion of Menander (c. 155-130 B.C.E.), the greatest of all the Indo-Greek kings of the Euthydemid dynasty who ruled over much of Afghanistan and Pakistan and whose conquests extended in the east as far as the river Ganges and Palibothra (Pataliputra).” […] “Alfred Foucher of the Délégation Archéologique Française argued that two engraved ivory plaques from Begram depict Jātaka tales of the Buddha’s previous births,108 while one inscribed gold coin from Tillya Tepe, dated to the first century b.c.e., depicts a standing man in half profile, who resembles Heracles or Zeus, pushing an eight-spoked wheel with both hands. The Kharoṣṭhī legend above reads: ‘He who brings the wheel of the law in motion.’ The obverse side shows a standing lion with its right forepaw raised that resembles the heraldic lions decorating the ceremonial shield of Philip II. In the left field a nandi-pada monograph (a trident form above a circle) symbolizes the ‘three jewels.’ The above legend in Kharoṣṭhī reads: ‘The Lion had driven away fear.’ If the interpretation is correct, this gold coin from Tillya Tepe may be the oldest representation of the Buddha ever to be discovered.” […] “Despite discernible similarities no formation provides the model for the other, while the novel delivery and arresting expressions of Greco-Buddhist art would probably not have been possible had there not been a substantial number of Buddhists among Greek donors and Hellenized intellectuals and artists. Elaborate depictions of Hellenistic themes in Buddhist art are not likely to have been the impersonal outcome of hired Greek artisans, who would have been asked by their patrons to stick to more traditional Buddhist themes.” §REF§ Halkias, G. T. (2013). When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfer of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures. In P. Wick & V. Rabens (Eds.), Religion and Trade: Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange between East and West (Vol. 5, pp. 65–115). Leiden, 90–91, 101–102 & 104–105. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JGDBID5Q\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JGDBID5Q </b></a> §REF§ “[O]ne particular Indo-Greek king, Menander (reigned c.155–130 BCE in northern India), not only appears to have adopted Buddhism himself, but, as ‘King Milinda’, enjoyed a legendary status in Indian tradition as a convert to and patron of the religion. […] During Menander’s reign, Buddhism certainly flourished in north-western India: a Buddhist reliquary from Bajaur, in Gandhara, bears a regnal year of Menander (Majumdar 1937).” §REF§ Mairs, R. (2015). Bactria and India. In E. Eidinow & J. Kindt (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Greek Religion (pp. 637–650). Oxford University Press, 643. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WRPWNCR9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WRPWNCR9 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 1, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The adoption of Buddhism among the Indo-Greek elite classes is attested by the celebrated conversion of Menander (c. 155-130 B.C.E.), the greatest of all the Indo-Greek kings of the Euthydemid dynasty who ruled over much of Afghanistan and Pakistan and whose conquests extended in the east as far as the river Ganges and Palibothra (Pataliputra).” […] “Alfred Foucher of the Délégation Archéologique Française argued that two engraved ivory plaques from Begram depict Jātaka tales of the Buddha’s previous births,108 while one inscribed gold coin from Tillya Tepe, dated to the first century b.c.e., depicts a standing man in half profile, who resembles Heracles or Zeus, pushing an eight-spoked wheel with both hands. The Kharoṣṭhī legend above reads: ‘He who brings the wheel of the law in motion.’ The obverse side shows a standing lion with its right forepaw raised that resembles the heraldic lions decorating the ceremonial shield of Philip II. In the left field a nandi-pada monograph (a trident form above a circle) symbolizes the ‘three jewels.’ The above legend in Kharoṣṭhī reads: ‘The Lion had driven away fear.’ If the interpretation is correct, this gold coin from Tillya Tepe may be the oldest representation of the Buddha ever to be discovered.” […] “Despite discernible similarities no formation provides the model for the other, while the novel delivery and arresting expressions of Greco-Buddhist art would probably not have been possible had there not been a substantial number of Buddhists among Greek donors and Hellenized intellectuals and artists. Elaborate depictions of Hellenistic themes in Buddhist art are not likely to have been the impersonal outcome of hired Greek artisans, who would have been asked by their patrons to stick to more traditional Buddhist themes.” §REF§ Halkias, G. T. (2013). When the Greeks Converted the Buddha: Asymmetrical Transfer of Knowledge in Indo-Greek Cultures. In P. Wick & V. Rabens (Eds.), Religion and Trade: Religious Formation, Transformation and Cross-Cultural Exchange between East and West (Vol. 5, pp. 65–115). Leiden, 90–91, 101–102 & 104–105. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/JGDBID5Q\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: JGDBID5Q </b></a> §REF§ “[O]ne particular Indo-Greek king, Menander (reigned c.155–130 BCE in northern India), not only appears to have adopted Buddhism himself, but, as ‘King Milinda’, enjoyed a legendary status in Indian tradition as a convert to and patron of the religion. […] During Menander’s reign, Buddhism certainly flourished in north-western India: a Buddhist reliquary from Bajaur, in Gandhara, bears a regnal year of Menander (Majumdar 1937).” §REF§ Mairs, R. (2015). Bactria and India. In E. Eidinow & J. Kindt (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Greek Religion (pp. 637–650). Oxford University Press, 643. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WRPWNCR9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WRPWNCR9 </b></a> §REF§" } ] }