Elites Religion List
A viewset for viewing and editing Elites Religions.
GET /api/rt/elites-religions/?format=api&page=3
{ "count": 448, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/elites-religions/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/rt/elites-religions/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 661, "name": "ni_oyo_emp_2", "long_name": "Ilú-ọba Ọ̀yọ́", "start_year": 1601, "end_year": 1835 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 53, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Orisha Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In many respects, the great body of customs and rituals of the Yoruba reflects their religious beliefs that are contained in a system called Ifa. This system of Ifa is a philosophical corpus related to the myths of origin, ethical ideas, and cosmological understandings […] No Alafin of Oyo rules without adherence to the traditions of Ifa.” §REF§ (Asante 2009, 35) Asante, Molefi Kete. 2009. ‘Alafin of Oyo’. In Encyclopedia of African Religion. Edited by Molefi Kete Asante and Ama Mazama. Los Angeles: Sage Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X83X28SN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X83X28SN </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 649, "name": "et_funj_sultanate", "long_name": "Funj Sultanate", "start_year": 1504, "end_year": 1820 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "NB while the official religion of the Funj Sultanate was Islam, rulers seemed to keep some traditional religious practices. “Its rulers were Muslim and used Arabic as the lingua franca of trade, though the court at Sinnar continued to speak Funj.” […] “Islam spread in the Funj Sultanate not only as a result of its acceptance by the governing elite and the trading communities, but also as the result of the migration of Muslim scholars and holy men into the region. In the sixteenth century Funj patronage attracted scholars from Upper Egypt, North Africa, and Arabia. They holy men, known locally as faqis, were scholars of the Quran and Muslim law and Sufi mystics and magicians […] The faqis founded lineages, settled in villages, established schools, and won the populace over to Islam […] They administered Maliki [Sunni] law, arbitrated local disputes, and instructed the people in Islam.” §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 429-431) Lapidus, Ira M. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW9XHCIW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QW9XHCIW </b></a> §REF§ “In November 1606, the Funj king, ‘Abd al-Qadir II was driven from his throne after a reign of less than three years. According to ‘Abdallabi tradition, he was expelled by ‘Ajib [viceroy] because of his religious innovations, i.e. his Islamic unorthodoxy.” §REF§ (Holt 2008, 42) Holt, P.M. 2008. ‘Egypt, the Funj and Darfur.’ In The Cambridge History of Africa Volume 4 C. 1600- C. 1790. Edited by Richard Grey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZVIMQWU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VZVIMQWU </b></a> §REF§ “The Funj Sultan was obliged to plough a field with his own hand at the beginning of his reign, probably in order to insure fertility. The common Funj throne name, Badi (farmer) reflected this royal rite. At the conclusion of the investiture ceremony the new king performed ritual ablutions, and he took part in an annual festival that entailed the burning of ceremonial fires and animal sacrifice. When the king appeared in public he was praised as ‘the most-mighty, the most just, the richest, and a hundred titles of honor of a similar sort.’ For his part, the king used boast formulas such as ‘I am a bull, the son of a bull and will die or conquer!’ While it was believed in Sinnar that the Funj had become Muslim at the founding of the sultanate, much of the above clearly bears little resemblance to Islamic concepts. Brun-Rollet expressed the situation tactfully: ‘In Sinnar and the neighboring regions various beliefs, usages and festivals [exist], of which one cannot explain the origin but by proceeding to before the establishment of modern religions.’” §REF§ (Spaulding 1973, 28) Spaulding, Jay. 1973. ‘The Government of Sinnar.’ The International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol 6:1. Pp 19-35. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KKJC836D\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KKJC836D </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 649, "name": "et_funj_sultanate", "long_name": "Funj Sultanate", "start_year": 1504, "end_year": 1820 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 88, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Nubian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "NB while the official religion of the Funj Sultanate was Islam, rulers seemed to keep some traditional religious practices. “Its rulers were Muslim and used Arabic as the lingua franca of trade, though the court at Sinnar continued to speak Funj.” […] “Islam spread in the Funj Sultanate not only as a result of its acceptance by the governing elite and the trading communities, but also as the result of the migration of Muslim scholars and holy men into the region. In the sixteenth century Funj patronage attracted scholars from Upper Egypt, North Africa, and Arabia. They holy men, known locally as faqis, were scholars of the Quran and Muslim law and Sufi mystics and magicians […] The faqis founded lineages, settled in villages, established schools, and won the populace over to Islam […] They administered Maliki [Sunni] law, arbitrated local disputes, and instructed the people in Islam.” §REF§ (Lapidus 2002, 429-431) Lapidus, Ira M. 2002. A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QW9XHCIW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QW9XHCIW </b></a> §REF§ “In November 1606, the Funj king, ‘Abd al-Qadir II was driven from his throne after a reign of less than three years. According to ‘Abdallabi tradition, he was expelled by ‘Ajib [viceroy] because of his religious innovations, i.e. his Islamic unorthodoxy.” §REF§ (Holt 2008, 42) Holt, P.M. 2008. ‘Egypt, the Funj and Darfur.’ In The Cambridge History of Africa Volume 4 C. 1600- C. 1790. Edited by Richard Grey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VZVIMQWU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VZVIMQWU </b></a> §REF§ “The Funj Sultan was obliged to plough a field with his own hand at the beginning of his reign, probably in order to insure fertility. The common Funj throne name, Badi (farmer) reflected this royal rite. At the conclusion of the investiture ceremony the new king performed ritual ablutions, and he took part in an annual festival that entailed the burning of ceremonial fires and animal sacrifice. When the king appeared in public he was praised as ‘the most-mighty, the most just, the richest, and a hundred titles of honor of a similar sort.’ For his part, the king used boast formulas such as ‘I am a bull, the son of a bull and will die or conquer!’ While it was believed in Sinnar that the Funj had become Muslim at the founding of the sultanate, much of the above clearly bears little resemblance to Islamic concepts. Brun-Rollet expressed the situation tactfully: ‘In Sinnar and the neighboring regions various beliefs, usages and festivals [exist], of which one cannot explain the origin but by proceeding to before the establishment of modern religions.’” §REF§ (Spaulding 1973, 28) Spaulding, Jay. 1973. ‘The Government of Sinnar.’ The International Journal of African Historical Studies. Vol 6:1. Pp 19-35. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/KKJC836D\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: KKJC836D </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 655, "name": "ni_proto_yoruba", "long_name": "Proto-Yoruba", "start_year": 301, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 53, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Orisha Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"During the Archaic through the Late Formative periods, the proto-Yoruboid and proto-Yorùbá in different localities had accumulated elaborate mythologies, ritualized ceremonies, and epistemological frameworks that formed the templates for their worldviews. Each local pantheon was a hierarchy of deities, with overlapping relationships in which each deity ruled over one or more spheres of the human condition. However, several of those deities (òrìsà) that were conceptual in nature, rather than ancestral, had regional appeal because they addressed broad human conditions and derived from common origins and deep-time experiences. [...] Their origins had a deep history, and they spread with the waves of proto-Yorùbá expansions throughout the first millennium AD.\"§REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 128-129) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ADQMAKPW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ADQMAKPW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 688, "name": "ug_nkore_k_1", "long_name": "Nkore", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1749 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 46, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Cwezi-Kubandwa Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"There is little doubt that immigrant Babito kings relied heavily on their supposed dynastic relationship to the Cwezi in their quest for ideological legitimacy. Kings made public pilgrimages and gave generous gifts to the shrines of Cwezi deities on behalf of their people. That Cwezi deities all had their own Nilotic mpako (pet) names, which were used by the initiated in their supplications, supports the argument that the incoming Nilotic Babito attempted to domesticate a pre-existing religious system (Beattie 1961a: 13).5 Yet this relationship between kings and Cwezi spirits was ever-evolving, shaped, it seems, by the complexities of alliance building and favour seeking. That the priestly elite maintained some autonomy and influence was best illustrated during royal succession struggles, when shrine heads sometimes accepted the risks involved in partisanship.\" §REF§(Doyle 2007: 563) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EXDF5UP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9EXDF5UP </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 663, "name": "ni_oyo_emp_1", "long_name": "Oyo", "start_year": 1300, "end_year": 1535 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 53, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Orisha Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In many respects, the great body of customs and rituals of the Yoruba reflects their religious beliefs that are contained in a system called Ifa. This system of Ifa is a philosophical corpus related to the myths of origin, ethical ideas, and cosmological understandings […] No Alafin of Oyo rules without adherence to the traditions of Ifa.” §REF§ (Asante 2009, 35) Asante, Molefi Kete. 2009. ‘Alafin of Oyo’. In Encyclopedia of African Religion. Edited by Molefi Kete Asante and Ama Mazama. Los Angeles: Sage Publishing. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/X83X28SN\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: X83X28SN </b></a>§REF§ “The political structure of the kings, called Alafin, in Yoruba historiography was large. The Yoruba describe their kings as alaseekejiorisa, meaning ‘the one with authority, second only to the orisa’ (spirits); the Alafin lived this dictum by wielding tremendous powers. There were, however, traditional provisions for checks and balances within Yoruba social structures; for example, the king ruled in consonance with a council of male and female chiefs.” §REF§ (Olajubu 2008, 276) Olajubu, Oyeronke. 2008. ‘A Social-Cultural Analysis of Celibacy among the Yoruba: Oyo Alafin’s Servants as a Case Study.’ In Celibacy and Religious Traditions. Edited by Carl Olson. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QRP8VAFD\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QRP8VAFD </b></a>§REF§ “According to tradition, the first Alafin and founder of Oyo was Oranyan or Oranmiyan, youngest son (or, in some accounts, grandson) of Oduduwa, the legendary hero and father of all the Yoruba. The Alafin’s title describes him as Lord of the Palace (Afin), but his authority is that of King (Oba) of the Oyo, and he is also ‘Lord of the World and of Life’, ‘Owner of the Land’; and ‘Companion of the gods.’” §REF§ (Smith 1965, 57) Smith, Robert. 1965. ‘The Alafin in Exile: A Study of the Igboho Period in Oyo History.’ The Journal of African History. Vol. 6:1. Pp 57-77. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/I967CWTZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: I967CWTZ </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 623, "name": "zi_toutswe", "long_name": "Toutswe", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 59, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mwali Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Karanga chief serves as both political and religious leader…. His power was believed to derive from the link between the land and his ancestral spirits…, thereby making the chief’s ancestors of vital importance to the entire population…When a chief died, power passed to his male heir. The chief then became an important ancestor who had joined the rank [sic] of spirits offering guardianship and aid to the people…. As is the case among the Karanga today, recognition and propitiation of ancestor spirits at Great Zimbabwe seem to have been a central part of the belief system…. Karanga oral tradition suggests that the Mwari cult began at Great Zimbabwe.” §REF§ (Steadman 2009, 264-266) Sharon R. Steadman, The Archaeology of Religion: Cultures and Their Beliefs in Worldwide Context (London: Routledge, 2009). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N4R4GHNJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N4R4GHNJ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 616, "name": "si_pre_sape", "long_name": "Pre-Sape Sierra Leone", "start_year": 600, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "No information found in the literature. Indeed, what little literature we have been able to access provides little information on this period, not just with regards to religious matters. Some of the region's modern-day ethnic groups first arrived in the region or already inhabited it in the period under consideration, but it is unclear to us whether any aspect of their traditional beliefs and practices was also present at this time." }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 680, "name": "se_futa_toro_imamate", "long_name": "Imamate of Futa Toro", "start_year": 1776, "end_year": 1860 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"By the time of the death of Abdul Qadir in 1806 the small Muslim party had become a ruling class acces sible only to, the women married by toorodbe men, to some noble Fulbe families, and to an occasional stranger favored by a large entourage or possessing impressive credentials of Islami\"§REF§(Robinson 1973: 289) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/H6VA5CET\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: H6VA5CET </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 689, "name": "rw_ndorwa_k", "long_name": "Ndorwa", "start_year": 1700, "end_year": 1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 46, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Cwezi-Kubandwa Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"There is little doubt that immigrant Babito kings relied heavily on their supposed dynastic relationship to the Cwezi in their quest for ideological legitimacy. Kings made public pilgrimages and gave generous gifts to the shrines of Cwezi deities on behalf of their people. That Cwezi deities all had their own Nilotic mpako (pet) names, which were used by the initiated in their supplications, supports the argument that the incoming Nilotic Babito attempted to domesticate a pre-existing religious system (Beattie 1961a: 13).5 Yet this relationship between kings and Cwezi spirits was ever-evolving, shaped, it seems, by the complexities of alliance building and favour seeking. That the priestly elite maintained some autonomy and influence was best illustrated during royal succession struggles, when shrine heads sometimes accepted the risks involved in partisanship.\" §REF§(Doyle 2007: 563) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9EXDF5UP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9EXDF5UP </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 667, "name": "ni_igala_k", "long_name": "Igala", "start_year": 1600, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 90, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Igala religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Considering their religious roles vis-à-vis the economic and political benefits inherent in them, it was natural that the ruling class saw Islam as a threat to their political, and more especially, economic existence and survival. […] the ruling class and the majority of the people remained less receptive and unconverted to Islam. Indeed, since their roles were connected through rituals and festivals, these would have been compromised by their acceptance of Islam.” §REF§ (Abdulkadir 2011: 10) Mohammed Sanni Abdulkadir, 2011. “ISLAM IN THE NON-MUSLIM AREAS OF NORTHERN NIGERIA, c.1600-1960”, Ilorin Journal of Religious Studies, (IJOURELS) Vol.1 No.1, 2011, Pp.1-20. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BZHQCJFG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BZHQCJFG </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 664, "name": "ni_proto_yoruboid", "long_name": "Proto-Yoruboid", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 53, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Orisha Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"During the Archaic through the Late Formative periods, the proto-Yoruboid and proto-Yorùbá in different localities had accumulated elaborate mythologies, ritualized ceremonies, and epistemological frameworks that formed the templates for their worldviews. Each local pantheon was a hierarchy of deities, with overlapping relationships in which each deity ruled over one or more spheres of the human condition. However, several of those deities (òrìsà) that were conceptual in nature, rather than ancestral, had regional appeal because they addressed broad human conditions and derived from common origins and deep-time experiences. [...] Their origins had a deep history, and they spread with the waves of proto-Yorùbá expansions throughout the first millennium AD.\" §REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 128-129) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ADQMAKPW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ADQMAKPW </b></a>§REF§ \"However, the Creator God was a distant figure in the everyday religious lives of the proto-Yoruboid and other proto-Benue-Kwa groups. The focus of worship was on the territorial deities presiding over the hills, valleys, drainages, and other landscape features as well as on the ancestors—the deceased heads, priests, and priestesses of houses, families, villages, and communities. The ancestors were incorporated into the pantheon and called upon to intercede with the greater and more distant Creator God and the territorial deities during the daily devotions, seasonal festivals, and times of crisis.\" §REF§(Ogundiran 2020: 39) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ADQMAKPW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ADQMAKPW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 685, "name": "ug_buganda_k_1", "long_name": "Buganda I", "start_year": 1408, "end_year": 1716 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 63, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Buganda Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"[A] singular Bugandan religion was common to all Baganda, with a variety of deities called lubaale to whom temples and priests were devoted. While lubaale were considered former clan members, they could be and were worshipped by all Baganda, since “it was the question of locality, not of kinship, that decided to which of the prophets an inquirer should go.” Indeed, according to Mair this is one of several “peculiarities” that “distinguish it from the religious ceremonies of Bantu Africa” along with the lack of any regular obligatory ceremonies.\"§REF§(Green 2010) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/248264BS\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 248264BS </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 666, "name": "ni_sokoto_cal", "long_name": "Sokoto Caliphate", "start_year": 1804, "end_year": 1904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Islam first appeared between the 11th and 14th centuries, while Christianity arrived in the 19th century. Initially, Islam attracted only the elite desirous of power and trade. The emergence of the Sokoto Caliphate in the 19th century spurred the spread of Islam from royalty to the common people.” §REF§Falola, Toyin, and Ann Genova. Historical Dictionary of Nigeria. The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2009: xxxiii. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/SJAIVKDW\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: SJAIVKDW </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 625, "name": "zi_torwa_rozvi", "long_name": "Torwa-Rozvi", "start_year": 1494, "end_year": 1850 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 59, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Mwali Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Karanga chief serves as both political and religious leader…. His power was believed to derive from the link between the land and his ancestral spirits…, thereby making the chief’s ancestors of vital importance to the entire population…When a chief died, power passed to his male heir. The chief then became an important ancestor who had joined the rank [sic] of spirits offering guardianship and aid to the people…. As is the case among the Karanga today, recognition and propitiation of ancestor spirits at Great Zimbabwe seem to have been a central part of the belief system…. Karanga oral tradition suggests that the Mwari cult began at Great Zimbabwe.” §REF§ (Steadman 2009, 264-266) Sharon R. Steadman, The Archaeology of Religion: Cultures and Their Beliefs in Worldwide Context (London: Routledge, 2009). Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/N4R4GHNJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: N4R4GHNJ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 644, "name": "et_harla_k", "long_name": "Harla Kingdom", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“At Harlaa, Islam co-existed with Indigenous religions that were followed by the majority of the local population. The nature of these religions is little understood, as they left no historical records and have only been partially investigated archaeologically with reference to their most tangible aspect: funerary practice.” §REF§ (Insoll et al. 2021, 501) Insoll, Timothy et al. 2021. ‘Material Cosmopolitanism: the entrepot of Harlaa as an Islamic gateway to eastern Ethiopia’. Antiquity. Vol 95: 380. Pp 487-507. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GGUW3WRZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GGUW3WRZ </b></a> §REF§ “In contrast, Harlaa was at least partially Islamised and its inhabitants participated in long distance trade in the 12th -13th centuries.” §REF§ (Insoll 2017, 208) Insoll, Timothy. 2017. ‘First Footsteps in Archaeology of Harar, Ethiopia’. Journal of Islamic Archaeology. Vol 4:2. Pp 189-215. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VQ38B374\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VQ38B374 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 644, "name": "et_harla_k", "long_name": "Harla Kingdom", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 1500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 74, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Ethiopian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“At Harlaa, Islam co-existed with Indigenous religions that were followed by the majority of the local population. The nature of these religions is little understood, as they left no historical records and have only been partially investigated archaeologically with reference to their most tangible aspect: funerary practice.” §REF§ (Insoll et al. 2021, 501) Insoll, Timothy et al. 2021. ‘Material Cosmopolitanism: the entrepot of Harlaa as an Islamic gateway to eastern Ethiopia’. Antiquity. Vol 95: 380. Pp 487-507. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GGUW3WRZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GGUW3WRZ </b></a> §REF§ “In contrast, Harlaa was at least partially Islamised and its inhabitants participated in long distance trade in the 12th -13th centuries.” §REF§ (Insoll 2017, 208) Insoll, Timothy. 2017. ‘First Footsteps in Archaeology of Harar, Ethiopia’. Journal of Islamic Archaeology. Vol 4:2. Pp 189-215. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VQ38B374\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VQ38B374 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 648, "name": "so_majeerteen_sultanate", "long_name": "Majeerteen Sultanate", "start_year": 1750, "end_year": 1926 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Majerteen Sultan professed Sunni Islam and adherence to the Shafi’i branch of Sunni Islamic law. They sponsored madrasas, built mosques, encouraged prayer and pilgrimage, and undertook many of the other obligations of Muslim rulers.” §REF§ (Smith 2021, 43) Smith, Nicholas W.S. 2021. Colonial Chaos in the Southern Red Sea: A History of Violence from 1830 to the Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/K6HVJ7X4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: K6HVJ7X4 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 91, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "unknown", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 6, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Vaisnavist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest political elites' practices of Hinduism in Funan during the fifth to the seventh century. “Vaişnava worship was practiced in Funan at the highest political level, as witnessed by contemporary inscriptions dated to the fifth to seventh century.20 These inscriptions confirm the role played by kings and their relatives in the foundation and inauguration of shrines dedicated to Visnu, which were \"the city's ornament,” and the making of images of Hari (Vişnu) \"out of devotion (bhaktyā), [which are something] that removes the suffering of devotees (bhakta).” Such references to Bhagavat (Vişnu) and Bhägavatädevotees in court epigraphy are ubiquitous and corroborate the close links between kingship, state power, and Vaişnava observance. [...] Within this well-established sectarian context, Vaişnava devotion appears to have enjoyed the preponderance of royal Funanese patronage.” §REF§ Manguin, P. Y. (2014). Early coastal states of Southeast Asia: Funan and Śrīvijaya. p.113. Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia, 111. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/BKV4P3BA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: BKV4P3BA </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 37, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Theraväda Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Regarding the following variable, expert David Kyle Latinis stated \"Largely what we see as far as temples, shrines, religious structures, historic recordings, etc. reflect the elite. Also, to erect structures of significant magnitude did not necessarily come only from elite royalty, but could be anyone of prominence (status and/or wealth), temples such as Banteay Srei and others are examples.\" “The tenth-century Brahmanical Preah Indr-Kosiy to the south of Angkor Wat gradually metamorphosed into Wat Preah Ind-Kosiy (Pou 1987-1988, 341) at this time [the Middle Period], and Buddhist structures began to multiply within the precincts of the temple itself. Indeed, its current name, meaning ‘city with monasteries’, indicates that middle-period monastic foundations flourished within its compound (Pou 1990, 19). Epigraphy from 1566 to 1744 CE mentions a variety of high-ranking Buddhist dignitaries active in the area, a good indication that it was the locus of very significant religious activity. A general resurgence of Buddhist activity is confirmed by the accounts of European adventurers […] one of them asserted that a third of the male population were Buddhist. This must be a massive overestimate, but the report of sizable monastic estates (B.-P. Groslier 1958, 160) suggests that institutional Buddhism was prospering.” §REF§ (Harris 2008: 35) Harris, Ian. Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice. Hong Kong: University of Hawai'i Press, 2008. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S9J7EKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5S9J7EKX </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest the practice of Saivist Hinduism by royals. “but by the time that Bhavavarman II came to power around 639, the veneration of Siva had begun to eclipse both Buddhism and all other Brahmanical cults. [...] Actually, there is some evidence that devotion to Visnu and Harihara did continue, although the inscriptions of the next king, Jayavarman I (r. c. 655–681), point to an increased emphasis on the linga.” §REF§ Harris, I. (2008). Origins to the Fall of Angkor. p.8-10. In Cambodian Buddhism: History and Practice. Honolulu. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5S9J7EKX\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5S9J7EKX </b></a> §REF§“Hinduism appears to have been the primary state religion; temples at Angkor Borei feature Hindu motifs and worship, and rulers presented themselves as devotees of Hindu deities. [...] the major state deities appear to have been Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, and Rama (Snellgrove 2004).” §REF§ Steadman, S. R. (2016). Chapter 14: From Hunter-Gatherer to Empire. p.234-235. Archaeology of religion: cultures and their beliefs in worldwide context. Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VIRUTCPJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VIRUTCPJ </b></a>§REF§ Though also note, “There is strong evidence that Buddhism also played a role in Chenla. [...] Rarely was Buddhism adopted by the roval family, but it was likely practiced by some members of the elite.” §REF§ O'Reilly, D. J. (2006). Pre-Angkorian and Angkorian Polities. p.113-114. Early Civilizations of Southeast Asia. Rowman Altamira. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/DB628MBV\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: DB628MBV </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 45, "name": "th_rattanakosin", "long_name": "Rattanakosin", "start_year": 1782, "end_year": 1873 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 37, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Theraväda Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Officials were ordered to live according to a moral code modelled on monastic discipline. The walls of wat were paintedwith murals teaching Buddhist lessons, often based on the jataka tales, which showed how the Buddha achieved spiritual perfection over his 500 incarnations before achieving enlightenment. Most popular was the Ves- santara Jataka about the last of these incarnations, a tale teaching the virtue of selflessness. The king sponsored annual chanting of this story – first, in the wat housing the kingdom’s Palladian image, the Emerald Buddha, and later all over the kingdom. This ceremony taught moral values while also dramatizing the king’s authority as a Bodhisatta.” §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2014: 31) Baker, C. J., Phongpaichit, P., Baker, C. (2014). A History of Thailand. Costa Rica: Cambridge University Press. Seshat ULR: §REF§ “Established jao sua also took enthusiastically to Thai culture. […] They patronized Thai Buddhist wat and appropriated the traditional marks of high status.” §REF§ (Baker and Phongpaichit 2014: 35) Baker, C. J., Phongpaichit, P., Baker, C. (2014). A History of Thailand. Costa Rica: Cambridge University Press. Seshat ULR: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/9NZXSU7Z\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 9NZXSU7Z </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest the close link between the god Siva and Angkor royal families. “Although it is no longer tenable to say that the cult of the devaraja was in some way a ritual process by which a king became a god, or a god-king, the evidence of ritual and ideological connections between almost all Cambodian kings and the god Siva is extensive, even if the devaraja cult as such may not have been as important as the authors of the Sdok Kak Thom inscription and many subsequent scholars would like us to believe. The cult, in other words, was a royal cult, rather than the definitive one.” §REF§ Chandler, D. (2018). KINGSHIP AND SOCIETY AT ANGKORA. p.51. A history of Cambodia (Fourth ed.). London. <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AXUKZQ4M\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AXUKZQ4M </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 37, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Theraväda Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest that Theraväda Buddhism and Shaivism were royally recognized and linked to the ideology of rule in late Angkor, though the importance of Shaivism declined gradually. “However, it was not until the late Angkor period that the Khmer kings began associating themselves and their reigns with Theravāda Buddhism. During this period there was a shift to Sinhalese forms of Theraväda Buddhism throughout the region, and inscriptions note that Buddhist monks from Burma, the Tai and Mon areas, and Cambodia went to Ceylon to study. In fact, there is a tradition that a son of Jayavarman VII was one of the monks who went to study Sinhalese Buddhism (Keyes 1977a). And Lao chronicles indicate that Theravāda Buddhism was first brought to Laos by a king who had acquired it while exiled to Angkor in the mid-fourteenth century (Reynolds and Clifford 1987). [...] Nevertheless, some form of Theraväda Buddhism has been royally recognized and linked to the ideology of rule since the late Angkor period [...] By the time the capital at Angkor fell in the fifteenth century, Theraväda Buddhism had overcome Cambodia's Brahmanist and Mahäyänist traditions.” §REF§ Marston, J. and E. Guthrie. (2004). Introduction. In Marston, J. and E. Guthrie (eds.) History, Buddhism, and new religious movements in Cambodia. p.8-10. p.15. University of Hawaii Press. §REF§" }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 92, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shaivism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "The following quotes suggest that Theraväda Buddhism and Shaivism were royally recognized and linked to the ideology of rule in late Angkor, though the importance of Shaivism declined gradually. “However, it was not until the late Angkor period that the Khmer kings began associating themselves and their reigns with Theravāda Buddhism. During this period there was a shift to Sinhalese forms of Theraväda Buddhism throughout the region, and inscriptions note that Buddhist monks from Burma, the Tai and Mon areas, and Cambodia went to Ceylon to study. In fact, there is a tradition that a son of Jayavarman VII was one of the monks who went to study Sinhalese Buddhism (Keyes 1977a). And Lao chronicles indicate that Theravāda Buddhism was first brought to Laos by a king who had acquired it while exiled to Angkor in the mid-fourteenth century (Reynolds and Clifford 1987). [...] Nevertheless, some form of Theraväda Buddhism has been royally recognized and linked to the ideology of rule since the late Angkor period [...] By the time the capital at Angkor fell in the fifteenth century, Theraväda Buddhism had overcome Cambodia's Brahmanist and Mahäyänist traditions.” §REF§ Marston, J. and E. Guthrie. (2004). Introduction. In Marston, J. and E. Guthrie (eds.) History, Buddhism, and new religious movements in Cambodia. p.8-10. p.15. University of Hawaii Press. §REF§" }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 5, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Saivist Hinduism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“His [Jayavarman VII] move to assert his own creed as supreme over the Saivism of the long-entrenched Brahmanical aristocracy must have entailed a blend of conviction, contingency and adventurism. He inherited a mix of religious traditions and sought a balance of power among them that gave him ultimate control.” §REF§ (Sharrok 2013, 9) Sharrok, P.D. 2013. ‘The tantric roots of the Buddhist pantheon of Jayavarman VII.’ In Materializing South East Asia’s Past. Edited by Marijke J. Klokke and Veronique Degroot. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EZQ9EUIU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EZQ9EUIU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 44, "name": "th_ayutthaya", "long_name": "Ayutthaya", "start_year": 1593, "end_year": 1767 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 37, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Theraväda Buddhism", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“From the early seventeenth century, ‘a revival of popular, court-sponsored Buddhism put an end to the ethnic tensions between the Thai, Mon, Lao, and Khmer ethnic communities’.52 These now formed what Smith refers to as ‘the central communities’, being spatially and socially integrated with the Thai, and forming a kind of inner circle based on their cultural affinities as Theravada Buddhists.” §REF§ (Strathern 2021: 11) Strathern, Alan. (2021). Thailand's First Revolution? The role of religious mobilization and ‘the people’ in the Ayutthaya rebellion of 1688. Modern Asian Studies, pp.1-34. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WPGUW8ER\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WPGUW8ER </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 372, "name": "ye_tahirid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Tahirid Dynasty", "start_year": 1454, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 4, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "‘’’ “Restoration of the Great Mosque in the Hadramfcity of Tarim took place during the reign of Sultan Amir al-Malik al-Zafir.'^ The circumstances of this occured as follows. In 902/1496, Shaykh Abdallah b.'Abd al-Rahman BalhajjBa Fadl wrote to Sultan 'Amir telling him that the mosque was too small for the congregation. The sultan then sent money for its extension with Muhammad Ba Sakutah who organised the reconstruction and extension. In 917/ 1511 the Tahirids provided the funds for a hammam and the sultan granted a large waqf for the upkeep of the mosque.” ” §REF§ Porter, Venetia Ann (1992) The history and monuments of the Tahirid dynasty of the Yemen 858-923/1454-1517, Durham theses, Durham University, p. 199-200, Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5867/ Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AFVGTE4Y\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AFVGTE4Y </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 540, "name": "ye_saba_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Saba and Dhu Raydan", "start_year": -110, "end_year": 149 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 93, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "South Arabian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The inscriptions from South Arabia list an extensive number of deities and allude to numerous religious rites. The distribution of the names of the gods suggest that each kingdom had a pantheon made up of three to five deities, who were worshipped jointly during collective rituals, and it seems that the pantheon’s deities had complementary functions. For example, the deities that constituted Saba’s pantheon are typically presented in this order: ‘Athtar, Hawbas, Almaqah, dhat Himyam, and dhat Ba’dan. In all of the known South Arabian pantheons, the major deity is always a god: Almaqah at Saba, Amm at Qataban, Sayin in Hadramawt, and ‘Athtar at Ma’in and Himyar. […] “Saba’s culture was represented through a language, Saba’ic, a pantheon, a calendar, and a dating system, all specific to this kingdom.” […] “In each kingdom, every commune had its own temple consecrated to a regional characterization of the main god: in the kingdom of Saba, for example, the common temple was consecrated to Almaqah Thahwan, ‘master of Awam’; the commune of Sirwah, by contrast, venerated Almaqah under the name Almaqah, ‘master of the ibexes,’ and that of Tan’im under the name of Almaq, ‘master of Shawhat.’ These characterizations can be compared to the diverse forms of the Virgin Mary’s cult or to that of Jesus observed amongst Christians, Mary of the Seven Sorrows, Our Lady of Safe Keeping, or the Sacred Heart.” […] NB the following is a thanksgiving inscription by an elite. “Lahay at Awkan ibn Ya’ziz, ibn Ma’ahir and dhu-Khawhlan, Hazyan ibn Kal’an, dhu-Bt and dhu Rayman, prince of the commune of Radman and Khawlan, governor of the commune of Dhubhan, has expressed his joy and has written this inscription in the sanctuary of his shams Very-High, mistress of mount Shihrar, in which her servant Lahay at Awkan expresses that he praises Her with gratitude, because She made him return safe and sound from the plain of dhu-Hurmat, from the battle where his lord Karib’il Ayfa, King of Saba and of dhu-Raydan, and his army, the army of Himyar, attacked Ilisharah Yahdub, King of Saba, and his army, the army of Saba, and they fought and attacked the king at dawn until the end of the day in the plain of dhu-Hurmat.” §REF§ (Robin 2015, 95-105) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. ‘Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.’ In Arabs and Empires before Islam. Edited by Greg Fisher. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MJEBSKNT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MJEBSKNT </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 541, "name": "ye_qasimid_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen - Qasimid Dynasty", "start_year": 1637, "end_year": 1805 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Qasimi Dynasty was born in the midst of Zaydi messianic expectations and Imam al-Mutawakkil clearly meant to exploit if not fulfil, the expectations. If his father had been the great deliverer and his brother the vanquisher of the Ottomans, he was the re-creator of the ideal Muslim community; his efforts to emulate the Prophet Muhammed are noteworthy in this regard” §REF§Hathaway, J. (2005). The Mawzaע Exile at the Juncture of Zaydi and Ottoman Messianism. AJS review, 29(1), 111-128. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RQCTSWNA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RQCTSWNA </b></a>§REF§ This second quote suggests that from the mid-Qasim Dynasty onwards, Zaydism (including Hadawi teachings) fell out of favour and Qasimis turned to Sunni Islam: “The expansion of the Qasimi state into Sunni areas led to unprecedented levels of interaction between Zaydi and Shafi'i scholars. The effect was that Zaydis acquired greater awarness of the wider Sunni world and began studying Sunni works, namely the collections of hadlth, with an intensity never before seen, and some even adopted Sunni views.” §REF§ (Haykel 2003, Pg. 41) B. Haykel. 2003. Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad Al-Shawkani. Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CZQNUAHA\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CZQNUAHA </b></a> §REF§ “In the words of one of Husayn al-Huthi's peers, ‘especially under the rule of the Qasimi imams, the Zaydis had become more Sunni than ahl al-bayt’ (here: neglecting the legacy of the Prophet's House).” §REF§ Hamidi, A. (2009). Inscriptions of violence in Northern Yemen: haunting histories, unstable moral spaces. Middle Eastern Studies, 45(2), 165-187. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/V62I3SKJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: V62I3SKJ </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 368, "name": "ye_rasulid_dyn", "long_name": "Rasulid Dynasty", "start_year": 1229, "end_year": 1453 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The Rasulids continued the Ayyubid policy of promoting the cause of Sunni Islam in the territories under their domination. As a result, the traditions of Sunni Islam became firmly established in their kingdom at a time when Shia Islam was being promoted in the mountainous interior of North Yemen by their rivals, the Zaydi Imams. Since the Rasulids were followers of Imam Shafi’i, the Shafi’ite brand of Sunni Islam became state religion.” […] “Being religious-minded, the Rasulid Sultans provided facilities for imparting religious education on a wide scale. A good number of schools and mosques were built by them throughout the kingdom for this purpose.” §REF§ (Ali 1996, 90) Ali, Abdul. 1996. Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization during the Later Medieval Times. New Delhi: MD Publications. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/ZDSVSSJ3\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: ZDSVSSJ3 </b></a> §REF§ “In these towns and others, the Rasulids constructed a large number of secular and religious monuments. As staunch Shafi’is, they favoured the construction of madrasas, which attracted many Sunni scholars from all over the Islamic world. These scholars, as well as other officials, were often offered posts in the Rasulid administration, such as Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi, who arrived in Yemen in 1394 and was appointed as chief judge (Qadi-al-qudat) by Sultan al-Ashraf Isma’il, who gave him his daughter in marriage.” §REF§ (Sadek 2006, 669) Sadek, Noha. 2006. ‘Rasulids.’ In Medieval Islamic Civilization. Edited by Josef W. Meri. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/FBHIJNQM\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: FBHIJNQM </b></a> §REF§ “Under their successors, the Turkish dynasty of the Rasulids of Aden (1229-1454), this support developed into a full fledged ‘oceanic polity’ to control the maritime expanse and conquer targeted ports between the Red Sea and the Indian peninsula in the late thirteenth century. Its oceanic policy had an empathically self-conscious religious dimension, involving as it did giving subsidies to Muslim clergy and bestowing robes of honor on Muslim merchants […] in return for having the names of its rulers recited in the Friday prayers at these ports.” §REF§ (Wink 2020, 219) Wink, Andre. 2020. The Making of the Indo-Islamic World: C. 700 – 1800 CE. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RARBJG5V\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RARBJG5V </b></a> §REF§ NB Ma Huan made a trip to Aden under the control of the Rasulid Dynasty in 1432/33. “The country is rich, and the people numerous. The King of the country and the people of the country all profess the Muslim religion.” §REF§ (Ma [1432/33] 1970, 154) Ma, Huan. [1432/33] 1970. Ying-Yai Sheng-Lan: The Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shores (1433). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XMZIPNGF\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: XMZIPNGF </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 359, "name": "ye_ziyad_dyn", "long_name": "Yemen Ziyadid Dynasty", "start_year": 822, "end_year": 1037 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Note that the Abbasid caliphate was Sunni and thus they would have established another Sunni dynasty in Yemen to secure power over the Shia groups. “Previously, the land that became Ziyadid territory was controlled by the Abbasid Caliphate. In fact, the Abbasids themselves actually created the Ziyadid dynasty as a means of limiting the power of Shi’i Muslims in the region, only to eventually have the Ziyadids declare their independence.” §REF§ (Lasky 2020, 2) Lasky, Jack. 2020. ‘Ziyadid Dynasty.’ In Salem Press Encyclopedia. Online Library Reference. LookLex Encyclopaedia, 2020, i-cias.com/e.o/ziyadid‗d.htm. Accessed 30 Sept. 2020. §REF§" }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 353, "name": "ye_himyar_1", "long_name": "Himyar I", "start_year": 270, "end_year": 340 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 93, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "South Arabian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Up until about the fourth century AD almost all the inhabitants of Arabia were polytheists.” §REF§(Hoyland 2001: 139) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVJ5HMM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVJ5HMM7 </b></a>§REF§ “In ancient times south Arabians would make over themselves and their immediate family to deities; since many such dedicants were of high status, this probably did not mean any sort of sacred slavery, but rather full allegiance to the cult community.” §REF§(Hoyland 2001: 163) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVJ5HMM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVJ5HMM7 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 539, "name": "ye_qatabanian_commonwealth", "long_name": "Qatabanian Commonwealth", "start_year": -450, "end_year": -111 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 93, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "South Arabian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In Qataban, when the king ‘requested’ a regulation dealing with water supplies, the promulgation of it was made in the name of the god Anbay. The shared cult of ‘Amm of Labakh enabled cooperation between a group of Qatabanian landlords and their tenants in far-off Dathinah.” §REF§ (Hoyland 2001, 141) Hoyland, Robert G. 2001. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/W94UAFFP\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: W94UAFFP </b></a> §REF§ NB the following quote suggests that the rulers also had a religious function and title. “A rock inscription in the Qatabanic language from the third or second century B.C., commemorating the construction of a pathway between the Upper Lands of the region of al-Bayda […] and the plain of Lawdar (1000 m below). The author, a mukarrib of Qataban, bears an extremely long and complex list of titles, in which are listed the component parts of his kingdom, then the religious offices he held and duties carried out (and whose nature is not always well understood).” §REF§ (Robin 2015, 101) Robin, Christian Julien. 2015. ‘Before Himyar: Epigraphic Evidence for the Kingdoms of South Arabia.’ In Arabs and Empires before Islam. Edited by Greg Fisher. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/MJEBSKNT\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: MJEBSKNT </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 538, "name": "ye_sabaean_commonwealth", "long_name": "Sabaean Commonwealth", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -451 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 93, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "South Arabian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Up until about the fourth century AD almost all the inhabitants of Arabia were polytheists.” §REF§(Hoyland 2001: 139) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVJ5HMM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVJ5HMM7 </b></a>§REF§ “In ancient times south Arabians would make over themselves and their immediate family to deities; since many such dedicants were of high status, this probably did not mean any sort of sacred slavery, but rather full allegiance to the cult community.” §REF§(Hoyland 2001: 163) Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/EVJ5HMM7\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: EVJ5HMM7 </b></a>§REF§" }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 365, "name": "ye_warlords", "long_name": "Yemen - Era of Warlords", "start_year": 1038, "end_year": 1174 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 9, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Shia Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"The Sulayhids ruled in Yemen as adherents of Ismailism and as nominal vassals of the Fatimids.\"§REF§(Bosworth 2014) Clifford Edmund Bosworth. 2014. The New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh.§REF§" }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 96, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Wari religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"I agree that Wari elites practiced Wari religion in Wari colonies, but wouldn’t say that other leaders did—they certainly didn’t at the local Cusco center of Ak’awillay (see Bélisle’s work). Also, there is something missing here between “high Wari religious ideology/iconography” seen in unprovenanced artifacts, versus the distribution of D-shaped temples and their trophy skull practices. The D-shaped buildings suggest a lower-class practice at heartland sites like Conchopata, and are present in some Wari colonies, but not in the planned orthogonal compounds, where ritual practices are less discernible based on the architecture and excavations. No D-shaped structures have been found near Cusco.\" (R. Alan Covey, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, June 2023)<br>\r\n“The image we currently have of Wari society is that of a rural society in which all political roles required ritual underpinnings, and where all hierarchies were supported by origin myths through a religious language and in accordance with the will of the oracles. We can assume that the ancestors of the noble lineages had a powerful voice in politics, and spoke and decided just like the other deities. There would have been a remarkable similitude in this regard between the Wari and the Inca.” §REF§ (Giersz & Makowski 2014, 288) Giersz, Milosz and Krzysztof Makowski. 2014. ‘The Wari Phenomenon: In the Tracks of a Pre-Hispanic Empire’. In Castillo de Huarmey: El Mausoleo Imperial Wari. Edited by Milosz Giersz and Cecilia Pardo. Lima: MALI. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/VBKPHAPI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: VBKPHAPI </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 97, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Inca religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“The state religion of the Incas was hierarchically organized in a fashion that roughly paralleled state political organization. The head of the religious apparatus was the ruler himself. Second to the Inca at the top of the hierarchy was the high priest or Villac Umu. This official oversaw the administration of the state religious apparatus and was usually a close relative and confidant of the Inca ruler. Below this official was an enormous hierarchy of priests, priestesses, and temples both in the capital of Cuzco and out in the provinces. [...] Religious institutions were frequently endowed by the emperor with their own lands and wealth. As the empire expanded, land for support of the state religion was also taken from conquered provinces. Labor to work these fields was provided by local communities as part of their taxation. The income from these lands supported the priests and priestesses and provided for the goods, such as cloth, food, and llamas, needed for sacrifice during religious ceremonies. Some temples, such as the Coricancha, the principal temple of the sun in Cuzco, were enormously wealthy, and the buildings were partially sheathed in gold.” §REF§ (McEwan 2006, 142-143) McEwan, Gordon F. 2006. The Incas: New Perspectives. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/QCNQH7TU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: QCNQH7TU </b></a>§REF§ <br>\"Spanish chroniclers came from a religion that denied active roles to women, and they had a hard time seeing Inca priestesses as doing active things. During the conquest period conquistadors would enter a temple and find 500 religious women, describing them as “assistants,” and their identification of the willaq umu (the sorcerer who tells/explains) as a sort of Inca pope draws attention to the fact that that aged Inca lord was just about the only male “priest” that they identified, and they never really described him as conducting ritual activities, unlike the thousands of mamakuna who lived in temples and performed ritual functions across the empire. While acknowledging that the Inca ruler led public ceremonies and had a personal relationship with important huacas, my own work (Inca Apocalypse, 2020) emphasizes descriptions of the paramount Inca woman, the Coya, as the head of the institution that trained priestesses, as a person surrounded by mamakuna, and someone who is said to have supervised important temples and their resources. The Inca ruler did claim to be a nexus between the political and supernatural realms, but religious women did the everyday “kin work” that showed reverence to royal mummies and sacred objects.\" (R. Alan Covey, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, June 2023) <br> \"the Incas did not concern themselves with ritual activities that maintained households and extended families, that defined relationships between groups, and that ensured the necessary soil fertility and precipitation for hillside farming and herding. They also had no interest in the personal health of individual subjects, who did not pray to Inca entities to prevent illness or injury.\" (R. Alan Covey, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, June 2023)" }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 99, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "pre-Inca religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Claims to leadership, though based on genealogy and ability, also gained legitimacy from religious sanction in the royal narratives. Most early kings were imbued with magical qualities granted by the Sun or Creator God. Their deeds exhibited precocious military valor or supernatural assistance, combined with visions of the future. Mayta Qhapaq’s life, for instance, was so filled with wondrous feats that the Spaniards used Hercules and Merlin as reference points for their European audiences. He was reputedly born with his teeth intact after only a three-month pregnancy, could walk at birth, and had reached the stature of an 8-year-old at just one year (Sarmiento 2007: 81–4). When an Inca ruler took the throne, he also assumed a new, sometimes supernaturally inspired, name. As noted above, Titu Kusi Wallpa received the name “He Who Cries Bloody Tears” (Yawar Waqaq) for weeping blood, an act that was famously repeated by the “Tired Stone” above Cuzco (chapter 7). We cannot fix when particular narratives became royal doctrine, but the invention of elite dogma was an ongoing process that most likely had some roots in the Killke era.” §REF§ (D’Altroy 2015, 87) D'Altroy Terence N. 2015. The Incas. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AA5PS4Q4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AA5PS4Q4 </b></a> §REF§ “Ethnohistorical and archaeological evidence demonstrates that public feasting was essential to the reproduction of both Late Intermediate period (LIP) and Inka authority (Bray 2003; Cummins 2002; Kolata 1996; Kosiba 2010; Morris 1982; Ogburn 2005; Ramírez 2005).” §REF§ (Kosiba 2012, 106) Kosiba, Steve. 2012. ‘Emplacing value, cultivating order: places of conversion and practices of subordination throughout early Inka state formation (Cusco, Peru)’. In The Construction of Value in the Ancient World. Edited by John Papadopoulos and Gary Urton. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California. Seshay URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RJQA4SX4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RJQA4SX4 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 97, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Inca religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "\"Probably the most important spread and networking of Inca religion in the later LIP (1200-1400 CE) involved royal marriage alliances with other groups, and early conquests, so that the Incas began to establish royal ancestor cults and some overarching religious practice that transcended the local landscape-based practices that they and other groups performed. It’s hard bridge between the chronicle legends and the limited archaeological data on ritual practices and religious architecture.\" (R. Alan Covey, pers. comm. to R. Ainsworth, June 2023) <br> “As administrative, political, and religious hierarchies developed in Cusco, the emerging Inca elite created new means for communicating its status, which involved ensuring access to and control over wealth objects.” […]“Sarmiento de Gamboa states that while the early Inca rulers had established and rebuilt the Qorikancha, it served as both elite residence and temple until the reign of Inca Rocca, when it was turned over to the state sun cult for its exclusive use. Cieza de Leon states that Capac Yupanqui began to take women from conquered territories to serve a new state religion involving veneration of the sun, and Sarmiento de Gamboa mentions that he also delegated religious authority by naming an older brother, Cunti Mayta, as high priest of the cult. The regional and multigenerational nature of these changes makes it clear that the evolution of the state cult was not the work of a single individual. One chronicle states that Inca Rocca completed the Qorikancha, then decreed that a complex of cloistered women associated with the state religion (akllawasi) be established in Inca-controlled towns.” §REF§ (Covey 2006, 117-118) Covey, R. Alan. 2006. How the Incas Built Their Heartland: State Formation and the Innovation of Imperial Strategies in the Sacred Valley, Peru. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/R4EBPQ5U\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: R4EBPQ5U </b></a> §REF§ “Claims to leadership, though based on genealogy and ability, also gained legitimacy from religious sanction in the royal narratives. Most early kings were imbued with magical qualities granted by the Sun or Creator God. Their deeds exhibited precocious military valor or supernatural assistance, combined with visions of the future. Mayta Qhapaq’s life, for instance, was so filled with wondrous feats that the Spaniards used Hercules and Merlin as reference points for their European audiences. He was reputedly born with his teeth intact after only a three-month pregnancy, could walk at birth, and had reached the stature of an 8-year-old at just one year (Sarmiento 2007: 81–4). When an Inca ruler took the throne, he also assumed a new, sometimes supernaturally inspired, name. As noted above, Titu Kusi Wallpa received the name “He Who Cries Bloody Tears” (Yawar Waqaq) for weeping blood, an act that was famously repeated by the “Tired Stone” above Cuzco (chapter 7). We cannot fix when particular narratives became royal doctrine, but the invention of elite dogma was an ongoing process that most likely had some roots in the Killke era.” §REF§ (D’Altroy 2015, 87) D'Altroy Terence N. 2015. The Incas. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/AA5PS4Q4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: AA5PS4Q4 </b></a> §REF§ “Ethnohistorical and archaeological evidence demonstrates that public feasting was essential to the reproduction of both Late Intermediate period (LIP) and Inka authority (Bray 2003; Cummins 2002; Kolata 1996; Kosiba 2010; Morris 1982; Ogburn 2005; Ramírez 2005).” §REF§ (Kosiba 2012, 106) Kosiba, Steve. 2012. ‘Emplacing value, cultivating order: places of conversion and practices of subordination throughout early Inka state formation (Cusco, Peru)’. In The Construction of Value in the Ancient World. Edited by John Papadopoulos and Gary Urton. Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, University of California. Seshay URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RJQA4SX4\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RJQA4SX4 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 72, "name": "tr_east_roman_emp", "long_name": "East Roman Empire", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 631 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 20, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Roman Catholic Christianity", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“As is well known, the Roman emperor Constantine the Great (311-37) began one of the most important transformations in the history of the Mediterranean basin by bringing Christianity under his protection. This, and the declaration of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire in 391 in the time of Theodosios, resulted in the spread of Christianity, backed as it was by political force. This transformation was speeded up by the establishment of the city of Constantinople and, immediately after the death of Theodosios in 395, resulted in the separation of the empire into two. Now Anatolia was officially a Christian region under the control of the Eastern Roman Empire.” §REF§ (Ocak 2010, 355) Ocak, Ahmet Yasar. 2010. ‘Social, Cultural and Intellectual Life 1071-1453’. In Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 1: Byzantium to Turkey 1071-1453. Edited by Kate Fleet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/US5KKCXU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: US5KKCXU </b></a> §REF§ “John Chrysostom’s demand that the aristocracy of Constantinople build rural churches to aid the Christianization of their estates, which is discussed below, may have motivated these measures even in the years after his exile and death.” §REF§ (Trombley 2014, 78) Trombley, Frank. Hellenic Religion and Christianity c. 370-529. Vol. 2. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/RXEDSXID\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: RXEDSXID </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 175, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_2", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire II", "start_year": 1517, "end_year": 1683 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Between the mid-fifteenth and the late sixteenth centuries, we encounter even more dramatic changes. Now the Sultan unambiguously appeared as the champion of Sunni Islam, while the ulema came to form a highly centralised and bureaucratised organisation.” §REF§ (Veinstein 2013, 322) Veinstein, Gilles. 2013. ‘Religious Institutions, Policies and Lives’ In The Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 2: The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453-1603. Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NGWQMJZI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NGWQMJZI </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 176, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_3", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire III", "start_year": 1683, "end_year": 1839 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In a seminal article Derin Terzioglu termed this Ottoman turn toward orthodoxy and orthopraxy ‘Sunnitization,’ which she defined as ‘the adoption by the Ottoman religious and political authorities of a series of policies to modify the behaviour and to a lesser extent the beliefs of all their Muslim subjects in line with the precepts of Sunni Islam, as they were understood at that time […] “The promotion of a particular Sunni school of law into a state school of law amounted to circumscribing the plurality of Islamic law in an unprecedented way, while the existence of state-affiliated, learned imperial hierarch created conditions conductive for a group of social actors to impose their opinion of what constitutes correct belief and practice of Islam.” §REF§ (Tijana 2021, 6-13) Tijana, Krstic. 2021. ‘Historicizing Sunni Islam in the Ottoman Empire c. 1450-1750. In Historicizing Sunni Islam in the Ottoman Empire c. 1450-1750. Edited by Krstic Tijana and Derin Terzioglu. Leiden: Brill. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5HD5P4KE\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5HD5P4KE </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 173, "name": "tr_ottoman_emirate", "long_name": "Ottoman Emirate", "start_year": 1299, "end_year": 1402 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“However, insufficient the sources maybe, it is still possible to see traces of Shi’i-Ismaili influences among the semi-nomadic Turks, regardless of the Sunni policy of the political administration which officially protected it, influences which were not considered by researchers until the recent past.” §REF§ (Ocak 2010, 387) Ocak, Ahmet Yasar. 2010. ‘Social, Cultural and Intellectual Life 1071-1453’. In Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 1: Byzantium to Turkey 1071-1453. Edited by Kate Fleet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/US5KKCXU\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: US5KKCXU </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 165, "name": "tr_neo_hittite_k", "long_name": "Neo-Hittite Kingdoms", "start_year": -1180, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 113, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hittite Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“To us the [Early Neo-Hittite] period seems to be one of recovery from two mean and insignificant centuries, a time when the Late Hittite kings began again to build palaces, temples, and monumental gateways, and to adorn them with sculptured orthostats in a manner rememberd from the Hittite Empire. At the same time they revived a tradition of literacy stemming from the same period. Subjects depicted in the reliefs were part religious – processions of gods and their worshippers and mythological scenes, and part secular – scenes of warfare and hunting. The rulers presented themselves in a very stereotyped and distinctive fashion, implying artistic contacts and common customs. Commemorative stelae and statues in the round are found in some quantity, and the figures, whether human or divine, are often supported on podia flanked by paired lions.” §REF§ (Hawkins 1982, 381-387) Hawkins, J.D. 1982. ‘The Neo-Hittite States in Syria and Anatolia.’ In The Cambridge Ancient History: The Prehistory of the Balkans, Middle East, and the Aegean World. Vol. III. Edited by John Boardman et.al. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/WIKBRIF9\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: WIKBRIF9 </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 174, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_1", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire I", "start_year": 1402, "end_year": 1517 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Between the mid-fifteenth and the late sixteenth centuries, we encounter even more dramatic changes. Now the Sultan unambiguously appeared as the champion of Sunni Islam, while the ulema came to form a highly centralised and bureaucratised organisation.” §REF§ (Veinstein 2013, 322) Veinstein, Gilles. 2013. ‘Religious Institutions, Policies and Lives’ In The Cambridge History of Turkey Vol. 2: The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453-1603. Edited by Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/NGWQMJZI\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: NGWQMJZI </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 177, "name": "tr_ottoman_emp_4", "long_name": "Ottoman Empire IV", "start_year": 1839, "end_year": 1922 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 8, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Sunni Islam", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“In sum, the Ottoman ruling elite was trying to foster a sense of Ottoman identity both along its own members and among the wider population […] Although the elite circle itself was small, its message reached a far broader stratum […] At the level of ‘official belief’ the Ottomans made an attempt to fuse pre-existing values such as the Hanefi mezheb with new energy, and project its as the social cement for their increasingly intense relations with their subjects/citizens.” §REF§ (Deringil 2011, 66) Deringil, Selim. 2011. The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the Ottoman Empire 1876-1909. London: I.B. Tauris. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/CC7SHACJ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: CC7SHACJ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 169, "name": "tr_lysimachus_k", "long_name": "Lysimachus Kingdom", "start_year": -323, "end_year": -281 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 126, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Hellenistic Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "“Priesthoods were held by those who had money and were willing to part from it, benefactors who volunteered to take on a burdensome office that involved significant expanses. Visual recognition of the priestly benefactor existed in analogy to any other civic benefactor and could therefore support the argument that priesthood was the vehicle for benefaction, which in turn entitled the benefactor to honours and prestige.” §REF§(Dignas, 2006, 72). Dignas, Beate. “Benefitting Benefactors: Greek Priests and Euergetism.” L’Antiquité Classique 75 (2006): 71–84. §REF§ “Macedonian monarchs patronized Greek religious centers and in most of the hundreds of cities under their control received divine honors, with cults, priests, statues, and often elaborate festivals in their names. Through these cults the individual cities could express their gratitude for the favors large and small that these new kings, almost greater than human to their contemporaries, bestowed. These new cults did not displace, but apparently were added to or linked to existing cults and festivals.” §REF§(Mikalson, 2007, 218) Jon Mikalson ‘Greece’ in Sarah Iles Johnston. (2007). Ancient Religions. Belknap Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/HPNMW9FZ\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: HPNMW9FZ </b></a> §REF§" }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 168, "name": "tr_lydia_k", "long_name": "Kingdom of Lydia", "start_year": -670, "end_year": -546 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Elites_religion", "coded_value": { "id": 127, "name": "Religion", "religion_name": "Phrygian Religion", "religion_family": null, "religion_genus": null }, "comment": null, "description": "Interpretations of Lydian religious activity in this period are often based on later Greek written accounts, notably Herodotus’ 5thC BC Histories. Most sources acknowledge the issues this raises around bias and accuracy, but that in combination with the archaeological record a fusion of Phrygian and Greek traditions can be assumed, and that the Phrygian ‘Mata/Mother’ goddess continued to have a central role in Lydian controlled territories. “Just as Lydian rulership, which brought the word “tyranny” into the Greek language, was accepted by its subjects as the perfect embodiment of worldly power, so too was the deity who symbolized the divine legitimation of Lydian sovereignty, the goddess who was both divine mother and consort of the Lydian ruler. To the Lydians, she was Kybebe, to the Phrygians Matar Kubeleya, or Kybele (and hence later Cybele to the Romans); to the Greeks she was most commonly known as the Mother of the Gods” §REF§(Munn, 2006, 4) Munn, Mark H. (2006). The Mother of the Gods, Athens, and the Tyranny of Asia : A Study of Sovereignty in Ancient Religion. University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/GFD6B87B\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: GFD6B87B </b></a> §REF§ “The representation of the goddess on or near city walls indicates an official cult, for it is unlikely that such monuments would have been made without the consent of the governing authority of the city. Similarly, the construction of the large rock facades of Midas City [7-6th C BC] and monuments of the Phrygian highlands such as Arslankaya must have demanded large financial resources, indicating the patronage of important figures in Phrygian society.”§REF§(Roller, 1999, 111) Roller, Lynn E. (1999). In Search of God the Mother : The Cult of Anatolian Cybele. University of California Press. Seshat URL: <a href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/5TT58SDG\" target=\"_blank\" class=\"fw-bolder\"> <b> Zotero link: 5TT58SDG </b></a> §REF§" } ] }