Polity Suprapolity Relations List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Suprapolity Relations.
GET /api/general/polity-suprapolities/?format=api&page=5
{ "count": 382, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-suprapolities/?format=api&page=6", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-suprapolities/?format=api&page=4", "results": [ { "id": 223, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 224, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 225, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "alliance relationships with trading berber nomadic groups?" }, { "id": 226, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Alliance: \"Relations with the Tuareg and the Sanhaja were restored, and through them Songhay established virtual control over the salt mines of Taghaza and the copper mines of Takedda, which were the keys to the successful working of the long-distane trade.\" §REF§(Roland and Atmore 2001, 69)§REF§" }, { "id": 227, "polity": { "id": 283, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_1", "long_name": "Eastern Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 583, "end_year": 630 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " \"At other times the Turkic polities were closely allied with either the Sui (A.D. 581-618) or the Tang (A.D. 618-907) dynasty (Sinor 1990).\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 226)§REF§" }, { "id": 228, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " An independent empire." }, { "id": 229, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " During this period Mongolia was a quasi-polity inhabited by simple and complex chiefdoms that alternatively warred against each other and formed alliances (Togan 199?)." }, { "id": 230, "polity": { "id": 442, "name": "mn_mongol_early", "long_name": "Early Mongols", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1206 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " During this period Mongolia was a quasi-polity inhabited by simple and complex chiefdoms that alternatively warred against each other and formed alliances (Togan 199?)." }, { "id": 231, "polity": { "id": 278, "name": "mn_rouran_khaganate", "long_name": "Rouran Khaganate", "start_year": 300, "end_year": 555 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "\"Displeased, the Chinese had him interned; he died in Lo-yang in 524, and A-na-kui remained the sole ruler of the Juan-juan. It is difficult to know how much real power he wielded, but he skilfully exploited the internal difficulties of the rapidly disintegrating W ei state. He established matrimonial relations with both the Eastern and Western Wei, and at times was an effective power broker between contending Chinese factions.\" §REF§(Sinor 1990, 295)§REF§ The Rouran tended to raid the Wei, with periods of alliance. There were several strategic marriage alliances between the two polities. However, this might be too unstable (because of the raiding) to code as 'alliance'?" }, { "id": 232, "polity": { "id": 440, "name": "mn_turk_khaganate_2", "long_name": "Second Turk Khaganate", "start_year": 682, "end_year": 744 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": { "id": 260, "name": "cn_sui_dyn", "long_name": "Sui Dynasty", "start_year": 581, "end_year": 618 }, "comment": null, "description": "\"At other times the Turkic polities were closely allied with either the Sui (A.D. 581-618) or the Tang (A.D. 618-907) dynasty (Sinor 1990).\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 226)§REF§" }, { "id": 233, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " \"The Uighurs were frequently Chinese allies, which involved several marriage alliances between the royal courts.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 227)§REF§ \"Like the Türks before them, the Uighurs ruled in a virtual symbiosis with the Sogdian merchants of Bukhara and Samarqand. Their attitude toward the Chinese, how- ever, was very different from the Türk rulers’ usually hostile stance. Facing a much weaker China, the Uighur rulers treated the Tang as a protectorate. In return for fighting rebels and Tibetans, the Uighurs expected vast sums of silk, as much as 230,000 bolts in a single year, and imperial princesses. Although the Uighurs also traded horses and presented “tribute goods” at the same time, the Tang found Uighur assistance very expensive, while Uighur troops were often as destructive as the rebels they were fighting.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 560-561)§REF§" }, { "id": 234, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " \"The Uighurs were frequently Chinese allies, which involved several marriage alliances between the royal courts.\" §REF§(Rogers 2012, 227)§REF§ \"Like the Türks before them, the Uighurs ruled in a virtual symbiosis with the Sogdian merchants of Bukhara and Samarqand. Their attitude toward the Chinese, how- ever, was very different from the Türk rulers’ usually hostile stance. Facing a much weaker China, the Uighur rulers treated the Tang as a protectorate. In return for fighting rebels and Tibetans, the Uighurs expected vast sums of silk, as much as 230,000 bolts in a single year, and imperial princesses. Although the Uighurs also traded horses and presented “tribute goods” at the same time, the Tang found Uighur assistance very expensive, while Uighur troops were often as destructive as the rebels they were fighting.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 560-561)§REF§" }, { "id": 236, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 237, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Berbers<br>Sanhaja culture also in Ghana Empire. \"The Sanhaja were a desert people and spoke a regional variation of the Berber language. Like their North African relatives, they subdivided themselves into large clans ... In the Western Sahara in the 11th century, the Sanhaja founded the Almoravid dynasty of the Islamic Empire.\" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 19)§REF§ The Sanhaja Berbers lived in tents rather than permanent settlements. They guided and protected caravans, and raided. §REF§(Conrad 2010, 33)§REF§<br>Zanata Berbers were the dominant traders in Awdaghust. They lived in the city. §REF§(Conrad 2010, 33)§REF§" }, { "id": 238, "polity": { "id": 525, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_early", "long_name": "Early Monte Alban I", "start_year": -500, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "probably unknown. It has been suggested that Monte Alban became the new centre of a confederation of people from different settlements of the valley, but the exact relationship between Monte Alban and the remaining settlements of the valley is not known.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York.§REF§" }, { "id": 239, "polity": { "id": 526, "name": "mx_monte_alban_1_late", "long_name": "Monte Alban Late I", "start_year": -300, "end_year": -100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " It has been argued that the Zapotecs at Monte Alban and the Teotihuacan state built mutually peaceful relationships, while both states were more powerful than other neighbouring polities. Neither conquered the other (based on distinct material culture and architectural styles) but did trade with one another.§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p161-166§REF§ Monte Alban Late I: “The expansionist tactics adopted by the rulers of Monte Albán apparently took many forms—including not just conquest, but also colonization, episodic raiding, the establishment of marriage alliances and/or trading relationships (perhaps backed by threats or occasional military force), and co-option of existing political structures.”§REF§Sherman, R. J., et al. (2010). \"Expansionary dynamics of the nascent Monte Alban state.\" Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 29(3): 278-301, p282§REF§" }, { "id": 240, "polity": { "id": 527, "name": "mx_monte_alban_2", "long_name": "Monte Alban II", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " It has been argued that the Zapotecs at Monte Alban and the Teotihuacan state built mutually peaceful relationships, while both states were more powerful than other neighbouring polities. Neither conquered the other (based on distinct material culture and architectural styles) but did trade with one another.§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p161-166§REF§ In addition, there is evidence for a \"Oaxaca barrio\" at Teotihuacan, with pottery styles dating to the MA II-III phases.§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p170§REF§" }, { "id": 241, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " It has been argued that the Zapotecs at Monte Alban and the Teotihuacan state built mutually peaceful relationships, while both states were more powerful than other neighbouring polities. Neither conquered the other (based on distinct material culture and architectural styles) but did trade with one another.§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p161-166§REF§ Evidence for this includes the Lapida de Bazan (a carved stone slab at Monte Alban) which depicts a peaceful meeting between a Teotihuacan ambassador and Zapotec lord.§REF§Marcus and Flannery (1996) Zapotec Civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico’s Oaxaca Valley. p233§REF§ In addition, there is evidence for a \"Oaxaca barrio\" at Teotihuacan, with pottery styles dating to the MA II-III phases.§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p170§REF§ Political and ritual (as well as commercial) relationships were also probably maintained between the Zapotec state and former territories, such as the Sola Valley.§REF§Balkansky, A. K. (2002) The Sola Valley and the Monte Albán State: A study of Zapotec imperial expansion. Prehistory and Human Ecology of the Valley of Oaxaca, Volume 12. Ann Arbor. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan Memoirs, Number 36. p67§REF§" }, { "id": 242, "polity": { "id": 529, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_b_4", "long_name": "Monte Alban IIIB and IV", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " The Zapotec state began to fragment at the end of the IIIA period, and eventually formed numerous smaller competing \"kingdoms\", each politically independent of the others§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p183§REF§§REF§Caso, et al, 1967 and Acosta, 1965, cited in Balkansky, A. K. (1998). \"Origin and collapse of complex societies in Oaxaca, Mexico: Evaluating the era from 1965 to the present.\" Journal of World Prehistory 12(4): 451-493.§REF§ although there were marriage alliances between elites, as recorded in genealogical registers. Marriage alliances became increasingly important as a political tool through the IIIB to IV periods.§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p184§REF§" }, { "id": 243, "polity": { "id": 532, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5", "long_name": "Monte Alban V", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " Marriage alliances between the elite of the Zapotec and Mixtec societies during this period were recorded by the <i>relaciones</i> (16th century Spanish writers). Alliances were created for many possible reasons, including political gain, status and increased access to farmland and resources.§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p220-221§REF§ <span style=\"color:blue\">No permanent unions between polities; these alliances seem between individuals.</span>" }, { "id": 244, "polity": { "id": 532, "name": "mx_monte_alban_5", "long_name": "Monte Alban V", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1520 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "personal union", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " Marriage alliances between the elite of the Zapotec and Mixtec societies during this period were recorded by the <i>relaciones</i> (16th century Spanish writers). Alliances were created for many possible reasons, including political gain, status and increased access to farmland and resources.§REF§Flannery and Marcus (1983) The Cloud People: divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec civilizations. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Academic Press, New York. p220-221§REF§ <span style=\"color:blue\">No permanent unions between polities; these alliances seem between individuals.</span>" }, { "id": 247, "polity": { "id": 8, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_3", "long_name": "Early Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " This is generally unknown from the archaeological record, although the abundance of exchange among polities seems to indicate marital alliances among settlement clusters.§REF§Clark, J.E., Blake, M., 1994. \"Power of prestige: competitive generosity and the emergence of rank in lowland Mesoamerica.\" In: Brumfiel, E.M., Fox, J.W. (Eds.), <i>Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World.</i> Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 17-30.§REF§§REF§Stoner, Wesley D., Deborah L. Nichols, Bridget A. Alex, and Destiny L. Crider. (2015)\"The emergence of Early-Middle Formative exchange patterns in Mesoamerica: A view from Altica in the Teotihuacan Valley.\" <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 39: 19-35.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H. (1984). \"Production and Exchange: Variables in the Evolution of a Civilization.\" In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) <i>Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.17-42.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (1996). \"The Basin of Mexico: Multimillenial Development toward Cultural Complexity.\" In <i>Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico</i>, edited by Emily P. Benson and Beatriz de la Fuente. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, pp. 83-93.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (2000) \"Ranked Societies, Iconographic Complexity, and Economic Wealth in the Basin of Mexico Toward 1200 BC.\" In Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, edited by John E. Clark and Mary E. Pye. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 169-192.§REF§§REF§Hirth, Kenneth G. (1984). \"Early Exchange in Mesoamerica: An Introduction.\" In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) <i>Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.1-16.§REF§§REF§Hirth, K.G., Cyphers, A., Cobean, R., De León, J., Glascock, M.D., (2013). \"Early Olmec obsidian trade and economic organization at San Lorenzo.\" <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i> 40: 2784-2798.§REF§§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§" }, { "id": 248, "polity": { "id": 8, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_3", "long_name": "Early Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -801 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " This is generally unknown from the archaeological record, although the abundance of exchange among polities seems to indicate marital alliances among settlement clusters.§REF§Clark, J.E., Blake, M., 1994. \"Power of prestige: competitive generosity and the emergence of rank in lowland Mesoamerica.\" In: Brumfiel, E.M., Fox, J.W. (Eds.), <i>Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World.</i> Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 17-30.§REF§§REF§Stoner, Wesley D., Deborah L. Nichols, Bridget A. Alex, and Destiny L. Crider. (2015)\"The emergence of Early-Middle Formative exchange patterns in Mesoamerica: A view from Altica in the Teotihuacan Valley.\" <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 39: 19-35.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H. (1984). \"Production and Exchange: Variables in the Evolution of a Civilization.\" In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) <i>Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.17-42.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (1996). \"The Basin of Mexico: Multimillenial Development toward Cultural Complexity.\" In <i>Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico</i>, edited by Emily P. Benson and Beatriz de la Fuente. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, pp. 83-93.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (2000) \"Ranked Societies, Iconographic Complexity, and Economic Wealth in the Basin of Mexico Toward 1200 BC.\" In Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, edited by John E. Clark and Mary E. Pye. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 169-192.§REF§§REF§Hirth, Kenneth G. (1984). \"Early Exchange in Mesoamerica: An Introduction.\" In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) <i>Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.1-16.§REF§§REF§Hirth, K.G., Cyphers, A., Cobean, R., De León, J., Glascock, M.D., (2013). \"Early Olmec obsidian trade and economic organization at San Lorenzo.\" <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i> 40: 2784-2798.§REF§§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§" }, { "id": 249, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " The settlement clusters of the MxFormL quasi-polity are thought to have been relatively independent and autonomous chiefdom-level polities during the Late Formative, but then gradually came under the control of neighboring Cuicuilco and Teotihuacan during the Terminal Formative c.200-1 BCE. While some have hypothesized that Cuicuilco headed some kind of Supra-polity political system during the Late Formative,§REF§Steponaitis, V. P. (1981). \"Settlement hierarchies and political complexity in nonmarket societies: the Formative Period of the Valley of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 83(2), 320-363.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 98-105.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§§REF§Earle, Timothy K., (1976). \"A nearest-neighbor analysis of two formative settlement systems.\" In Flannery, Kent V. (Ed.), <i>The Early Mesoamerican Village.</i> San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 196-223.§REF§ the characteristics of such a Supra-polity political system are unknown to archaeologists." }, { "id": 250, "polity": { "id": 9, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4", "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -401 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " This is generally unknown from the archaeological record, although the abundance of exchange among polities seems to indicate marital alliances among settlement clusters.§REF§Clark, J.E., Blake, M., 1994. \"Power of prestige: competitive generosity and the emergence of rank in lowland Mesoamerica.\" In: Brumfiel, E.M., Fox, J.W. (Eds.), <i>Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World.</i> Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 17-30.§REF§§REF§Stoner, Wesley D., Deborah L. Nichols, Bridget A. Alex, and Destiny L. Crider. (2015)\"The emergence of Early-Middle Formative exchange patterns in Mesoamerica: A view from Altica in the Teotihuacan Valley.\" <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 39: 19-35.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H. (1984). \"Production and Exchange: Variables in the Evolution of a Civilization.\" In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) <i>Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.17-42.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (1996). \"The Basin of Mexico: Multimillenial Development toward Cultural Complexity.\" In <i>Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico</i>, edited by Emily P. Benson and Beatriz de la Fuente. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, pp. 83-93.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (2000) \"Ranked Societies, Iconographic Complexity, and Economic Wealth in the Basin of Mexico Toward 1200 BC.\" In Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, edited by John E. Clark and Mary E. Pye. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 169-192.§REF§§REF§Hirth, Kenneth G. (1984). \"Early Exchange in Mesoamerica: An Introduction.\" In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) <i>Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.1-16.§REF§§REF§Hirth, K.G., Cyphers, A., Cobean, R., De León, J., Glascock, M.D., (2013). \"Early Olmec obsidian trade and economic organization at San Lorenzo.\" <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i> 40: 2784-2798.§REF§§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§" }, { "id": 251, "polity": { "id": 9, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4", "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -401 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " This is generally unknown from the archaeological record, although the abundance of exchange among polities seems to indicate marital alliances among settlement clusters.§REF§Clark, J.E., Blake, M., 1994. \"Power of prestige: competitive generosity and the emergence of rank in lowland Mesoamerica.\" In: Brumfiel, E.M., Fox, J.W. (Eds.), <i>Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World.</i> Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 17-30.§REF§§REF§Stoner, Wesley D., Deborah L. Nichols, Bridget A. Alex, and Destiny L. Crider. (2015)\"The emergence of Early-Middle Formative exchange patterns in Mesoamerica: A view from Altica in the Teotihuacan Valley.\" <i>Journal of Anthropological Archaeology</i> 39: 19-35.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H. (1984). \"Production and Exchange: Variables in the Evolution of a Civilization.\" In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) <i>Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.17-42.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (1996). \"The Basin of Mexico: Multimillenial Development toward Cultural Complexity.\" In <i>Olmec Art of Ancient Mexico</i>, edited by Emily P. Benson and Beatriz de la Fuente. Washington, D.C.: National Gallery of Art, pp. 83-93.§REF§§REF§Niederberger, Christine. (2000) \"Ranked Societies, Iconographic Complexity, and Economic Wealth in the Basin of Mexico Toward 1200 BC.\" In Olmec Art and Archaeology in Mesoamerica, edited by John E. Clark and Mary E. Pye. New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 169-192.§REF§§REF§Hirth, Kenneth G. (1984). \"Early Exchange in Mesoamerica: An Introduction.\" In Kenneth G. Hirth (Ed.) <i>Trade and Exchange in Early Mesoamerica</i>. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp.1-16.§REF§§REF§Hirth, K.G., Cyphers, A., Cobean, R., De León, J., Glascock, M.D., (2013). \"Early Olmec obsidian trade and economic organization at San Lorenzo.\" <i>Journal of Archaeological Science</i> 40: 2784-2798.§REF§§REF§Santley, Robert S. (1977). \"Intra-site settlement patterns at Loma Torremote, and their relationship to formative prehistory in the Cuautitlan Region, State of Mexico.\" Ph.D. Dissertation, Depatartment of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, pp. 365-425.§REF§" }, { "id": 252, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " The settlement clusters of the MxFormT quasi-polity are thought to have been relatively independent and autonomous chiefdom-level polities during the Late Formative, but then gradually came under the control of neighboring Cuicuilco and Teotihuacan during the Terminal Formative c.200-1 BCE. While some have hypothesized that Cuicuilco headed some kind of Supra-polity political system during the Late Formative,§REF§Steponaitis, V. P. (1981). \"Settlement hierarchies and political complexity in nonmarket societies: the Formative Period of the Valley of Mexico.\" <i>American Anthropologist</i>, 83(2), 320-363.§REF§§REF§Sanders, William T., Jeffrey R. Parsons, and Robert S. Santley. (1979) <i>The Basin of Mexico: Ecological Processes in the Evolution of a Civilization.</i> Academic Press, New York, pg. 98-105.§REF§§REF§Charlton, Thomas H., & Deborah L. Nichols. (1997). \"Diachronic studies of city-states: Permutations on a theme—Central Mexico from 1700 BC to AD 1600.\" In Charlton and Nichols, eds. <i>The Archaeology of City-States: Cross-Cultural Approaches</i>. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, pp.169-207.§REF§§REF§Earle, Timothy K., (1976). \"A nearest-neighbor analysis of two formative settlement systems.\" In Flannery, Kent V. (Ed.), <i>The Early Mesoamerican Village.</i> San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 196-223.§REF§ the characteristics of such a Supra-polity political system are unknown to archaeologists." }, { "id": 253, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " The three chiefdoms were separate entities with no evidence for supra-polity relations.§REF§Spencer, C. S. and E. M. Redmond (2003). \"Militarism, resistance, and early state development in Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Social Evolution & History 2: 25-70, p32§REF§" }, { "id": 254, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " Residents at San José Mogote were the most numerous and hierarchically complex in the valley at this time, but relations with other settlements may only have extended as far as some smaller neighbouring ones for the purposes of importing limestone and travertine for construction at San José Mogote.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (2005). Excavations at San José Mogote 1: The Household Archaeology, University of Michigan Museum, p11§REF§" }, { "id": 255, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " This phase was characterised by a number of small settlements, with the exception of one larger site (San José Mogote) §REF§Blanton, R. E., et al. (1979). \"Regional evolution in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico.\" Journal of Field Archaeology 6(4): 372.§REF§." }, { "id": 256, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " 'Vassalage is the best fit out of the available options in the codebook, but this was not the typical feudal vassalage with an earl (except at the very beginning of the period), count or a similar vassal under a king. Iceland as a whole did not have a single figurehead except sometimes in the office of hirðstjóri, usually appointed by the king for three years at a time. But often there was not a single man in charge but many.' §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§ The first Icelandic communities pledged allegiance to the Norwegian crown in 1262ce: 'The agreement by which Iceland was formally brought under Norwegian rule created only a confederate union, adn did not materially change the status of the Icelandic chieftains. They were now to hold their rights from the king, and were forbidden to wage war on each other; but since the Icelandic laws were still in force, the union agreement really involved only an acknowledgment of the king's sovereignty, and the payment of a small tribute to the crown. It appear from the Icelandic code, the \"Jónsbók\", adopted in 1280, that the taxes to be paid were very moderate, as the twenty alnar vaomál payable by each freeholder for himself and his household, and by unmarried persons who owned property to the value of ten hundred unincumbered by debts, included also the old tax of thingfararkaup. Only one-half of the whole sum was to be paid to the king. The other half was to be kept in Iceland for the payment of the usual taxes. To the common people the union with Norway brought the distinct advantage of the termination of the bloody conflicts in which they had been forced to take part. Peace was established, and the conviction that henceforth the government would safeguard life and property must have created a new sense of security and well-being. Freedom from lawless terror, established by the altered relation to the mother country, must have been welcomed by the people in general as a new freedom rather than as foreign oppression.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 208§REF§ Although a degree of internal autonomy was maintained, the nature and practice of law changed considerably: 'These new codes wrought a fundamental change in the conception of positive law as well as in legal practice in Iceland. The old court procedures with its intricacies and formalities was replaced by the simpler Norwegian system. The king was ruler and lawgiver was regarded as the source of justice, and behind the laws now stood the royal authority, ready to execute the decrees of the courts even against the most powerful offenders. Violation of the law was no longer viewed as a private affair to be settled by the offender and the party injured, but as a crime for which the wrong-doer had to answer to the government. The fines to be paid and other punishments to be inflicted were still to be determined by twelve men according to ancient usage. The old punishment of banishment for serious offenses was retained, but fines payable to the king were instituted in numerous cases, and capital punishment was to be inflicted for grave crimes, like murder, robbery, rape, counterfeiting, forgery, and seduction. Other severe punishments were also established. [...] But care had been taken by the lawgiver to guard against hasty action and undue harshness in the treatment of wrong-doers. In a chapter about legal decisions he advises the judges to consider carefully truth, justice, patience and mercy, in order that their decisions not bear the marks of cruelty and hatred. [...] The first lawmen appointed under the new law were Stural Thordsson and Jon Einarsson. The first royal magistrates who received the title of sýslumadr were Hrafn Oddsson in western Iceland, and Thorvard Thorarinsson for the southern and eastern districts, and Asgrim Thorsteinsson in the south-western districts. Others may have been appointed, but their names are not known. In 1279 Hrafn Oddsson became royal merkismadr with authority over all Iceland, as already noted.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 215pp§REF§ There were fundamental disagreements about the nature of the relationship between Iceland and Norway: 'The royal executive authority and the new efficiency of the courts of law created through the union with Norway terminated the bloody feuds which had hitherto raged between the Icelandic chieftains. An uneventful era of peace followed the turmoils of the Sturlung period. Even the struggle between church and state was now adjusted so that economic life and the pursuits of peace could receive the undivided attention of the people. But the few sources which deal with the political conditions in Iceland during the years following the death of Bishop Arni show that conditions created by the union were causing dissatisfaction and unrest. The chief cause of public discontent was the unsatisfactory arrangement with regard to commerce, the insufficient Norwegian exports to Iceland, together with the policy pursued by the Norwegian government of bringing Icelanders to Norway for trial, and of appointing Norwegians for sýslumenn and lawmen, contrary to the spirit of the union agreement. The chieftains undoubtedly had thought that their political and social organization would be left undisturbed under the union; that they would only be required to pledge their allegiance to the king, pay him taxes, and receive a jarl as his personal representative, as the union agreement expressly stated. But the most far-reaching changes had been wrought. The godors had been abolished, the Althing had been reorganized, Norwegian jurisprudence had been introduced, Norwegians had been appointed to the leading public offices, and Icelanders had been summoned abroad for trial. The Norwegian government had shown an unmistakable disposition to treat Iceland as a dependency.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 227§REF§ The Norwegian crown sought to treat Iceland as a dependency, sometimes unsuccessfully so: 'This reminder had the result that in 1315 a full representation again met at the Althing from all parts of Iceland. In 1314 he issues a new supplement to the Icelandic code, in which he sought to right some of the wrongs complained of in the remonstrance submitted by the Althing. Regarding the bringing of Icelanders to Norway for trial, the law was made to conform to the remonstrance. A provision was inserted stating that such a step should be taken only if the sýslumenn and lawmen were unable to try the case. The demand for new taxes was definitely dropped. But nothing was said regarding the appointment of native Icelanders for office; nor was any assurance given that six ships would be sent to Iceland every year, though this matter was now of greater importance than ever, since the trade with Iceland had become a Norwegian monopoly. No guarantee existed that the king would respect the provisions in the union agreement. Hitherto he had shown a disposition to place Iceland on the level with the Norwegian dependencies. What the future relation between the two countries was to be seemed as much as ever an unsettled question.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 233§REF§ But formally speaking, Iceland formed now part of the greater Norwegian polity and was accordingly affected by the discontinuation of the Norwegian dynasty's male line and the personal union with Denmark: 'The realm of the king of Norway, when Iceland became a part of it, was centred on the North Atlantic. It stretched from the west coast of Greenland to the Barents Sea in the north, and south to Göteborg and the Orkneys [...]. Purely in terms of distance, Iceland was not far from the middle of this domain; it was within a week's travel of the main centres, the royal court at Bergen and the archiepiscoal sea at Trondheim. Just over two centuries later, the capital of the state was the city of Copenhagen on the Sound, and Iceland was at the westernmost point of the kingdom. It was King Haakon (1299-1319), son of Magnus, who turned the thrust of the state to the south and east. He moved his court from Bergen to Oslo, and arranged a marriage between his daughter Ingeborg and the brother of the Swedish king, when she was one year old. Their son, Magnus, inherited the thrones of Sweden and Norway in 1319, at the age of three. Norway as an autonomous kingdom had thus practically ceased to exist. The mid-14th century also saw the Balck Death sweep through Scandinavia. The disease was especially virulent in Norway, where as many as two-third of the population may have died in successive epidemics. In the period 1376-80 the boy king Olaf, son of Hakon, inherited the crowns of Denmark and Norway. Thus Iceland became subject to the Danish throne, a relationship that was not finally broken off until 1944. Olaf was also of the Swedish royal house (which ruled Finland too). It is easy to imagne the idea of a unified Nordic realm forming in the mind of Queen Margarethe, mother of the child king. But in 1387 Olaf suddenly died, aged 17. But Margarethe did not give up her plans. She contrived to have herself elected regent in all the Nordic kingdoms, and to have her six-year-old foster-son nominaated heir to all the thrones. In 1397 an attempt was made in the Swesih city of Karlmar to establish a permanent union of the states.' §REF§Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. \"A Brief History of Iceland\", 22p§REF§" }, { "id": 257, "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Bauer, when describing the 200-600 CE period: \"When the Wari entered the Cuzco region they encountered thriving local societies. [...] numerous chiefdoms had developed across the region. The largest and most powerful of these were located in the areas of greatest agricultural production, including the Plain of Anta, the Cuzco Basin, the Lucre Basin and the Huaro Basin. Elsewhere, smaller chiefdoms also developed. Depending on their locations, these were most likely in a constant state of conflict or alliance formation with the large polities of the region.\"§REF§(Bauer 2004, 54)§REF§" }, { "id": 258, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "\"When the Wari entered the Cuzco region they encountered thriving local societies. ... numerous chiefdoms had developed across the region. The largest and most powerful of these were located in the areas of greatest agricultural production, including the Plain of Anta, the Cuzco Basin, the Lucre Basin and the Huaro Basin. Elsewhere, smaller chiefdoms also developed. Depending on their locations, these were most likely in a constant state of conflict or alliance formation with the large polities of the region.\"§REF§(Bauer 2004, 54)§REF§" }, { "id": 259, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "\"The developing Inca polity is likely to have had direct control over, or close alliances with, some groups outside the Cuzco Valley even before it was completely consolidated.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 88)§REF§\"Inca alliances with a limited number of neighboring groups depended on the personal interactions of elite individuals who acted on behalf of small groups like the people of Huaro, as well as larger ethnic confederations like the Ayarmacas.\"§REF§(Covey 2006, 110)§REF§<br>\"The Pinagua-Moyna polity seems to have been the most powerful in the region before the reign of Inca Viracocha. These two groups jointly occupied the Lucre Basin and were likely the two moieties of a combined political unit. [...] Together with the Pinagua-Moyna alliance, the important settlements of Andahuaylillas, Huaro, and Urcos probably formed a powerful confederate mini-state, which was long able to prevent the Inca extension toward the east and Collao (Titicaca) region. It is noteworthy that these sites all contain the archaeological remains of major Wari occupations. This mini-state is very likely a fragment of the old Wari imperial structure.\" §REF§(Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246)§REF§" }, { "id": 260, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Some alliances maintained by the Killke.§REF§(Covey 2006a, 137)§REF§<br>\"The developing Inca polity is likely to have had direct control over, or close alliances with, some groups outside the Cuzco Valley even before it was completely consolidated.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 88)§REF§<br>\"alliance and hegemonic control were extended beyond the heartland region prior to the full implementation of direct control.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 88)§REF§Alliances with following groups (often preceded by warfare and ended with a marriage exchange): §REF§(Bauer 2004, 89)§REF§<br>Anta (west)<br>Ayarmaca (north west)<br>Huayllacan (north)<br>The Lucre polity also had alliances:<br>\"The Pinagua-Moyna polity seems to have been the most powerful in the region before the reign of Inca Viracocha. These two groups jointly occupied the Lucre Basin and were likely the two moieties of a combined political unit. [...] Together with the Pinagua-Moyna alliance, the important settlements of Andahuaylillas, Huaro, and Urcos probably formed a powerful confederate mini-state, which was long able to prevent the Inca extension toward the east and Collao (Titicaca) region. It is noteworthy that these sites all contain the archaeological remains of major Wari occupations. This mini-state is very likely a fragment of the old Wari imperial structure.\" §REF§(Hiltunen and McEwan 2004, 246)§REF§<br>Possible alliance with other polities based at Tipón, Minaspata and Cotocotuyoc. §REF§(Covey 2006a, 103)§REF§" }, { "id": 261, "polity": { "id": 77, "name": "pe_cuzco_1", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "\"It may also be noted that there is a distinct clustering of sites in the Cachimayu area, in the northwest extreme of our survey area (Map 5.1). This cluster is made all the more notable by the fact that there are no Formative Period sites in the high watershed area between the Cachimayu area and the Cuzco Basin. These sites most likely represent a small village cluster that paid allegiance to the elites of Cuzco or a similar chiefly society developing in or near the Plain of Anta, further to the west.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 45)§REF§Bauer also refers to the existence of \"important villages near the modern towns of Yaurisque and Paruro\", in the Cusichaca area, in Chit'apampa and the Cuyo Basin, and a chiefdom in the Lucre Basin. §REF§(Bauer 2004, 46)§REF§ \"Since periods of chiefdom developmment are frequently marked by conflict as many roughly equal polities compete for dominance, it is possible that additional research in the Cuzco region will not only help us to better define the political divisions of the area, but will also bring forth evidence of conflict and alliance formations between the many different chiefly centers.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 46)§REF§" }, { "id": 262, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "\"Not all groups were reduced to subordination during the initial territorial expansion. Some alliances were maintained, while hostile groups were attacked and raided periodically for decades before being conquered.\" §REF§(Covey 2003, 353)§REF§<br>\"During the 14th century, the Inka state annexed new territory through increasingly protracted military campaigns. Local resistance or rebellions led to the territorial consolidation of the increasingly large parts of the Inka heartland, while long distance diplomatic contacts became more sustained and formalized.\" §REF§(Covey 2003, 353)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 263, "polity": { "id": 83, "name": "pe_inca_emp", "long_name": "Inca Empire", "start_year": 1375, "end_year": 1532 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "\"Not all groups were reduced to subordination during the initial territorial expansion. Some alliances were maintained, while hostile groups were attacked and raided periodically for decades before being conquered.\" §REF§(Covey 2003, 353)§REF§<br>\"During the 14th century, the Inka state annexed new territory through increasingly protracted military campaigns. Local resistance or rebellions led to the territorial consolidation of the increasingly large parts of the Inka heartland, while long distance diplomatic contacts became more sustained and formalized.\" §REF§(Covey 2003, 353)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 264, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "\"As the Wari entered the Cuzco region, they would have attempted to form coalitions with certain members of the local elite families, and then, over time tried to extend their direct administrative control over the region and its populace.\" §REF§(Bauer 2004, 67)§REF§\"In spite of Cajamarca’s great distance from the Wari capital, it seems to have been one of Wari’s strongest associates, hopping along wherever the Wari went.\" §REF§(Castillo Butters in Bergh 2012, 59)§REF§" }, { "id": 265, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " Prior to colonial annexation, the Orokaiva were a group of autonomous tribes without central political organization: 'Political organization incorporates no central authority or hereditary leadership. Instead, it is characterized by big-men(EMBO DAMBO) and an ascendancy of elders who have proved themselves equal to the task. Such men command the respect of the village, based upon observed qualities of generosity, diligence, wealth, ability to make wise decisions, and skill in arranging ceremonial activities. This status confers no sanctioning authority, however. The Orokaiva tribes, around twelve in number, are very loose units politically and recognize no single leader. The largest unit is the tribe, which has a common territory usually demarcated from neighboring tribal territories by a belt of uninhabited land.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§ 'The social system is characterized by flexibility in arrangements for group membership and for transmission of rights to land. A village normally contains more than one clan branch and consequently is not necessarily a landholding unit. Residents may have closer kinship ties to residents of other villages than with some of their coresidents. Nevertheless, common residence implies some community of interest and a degree of group solidarity that is reinforced by government policy, which recognizes villages rather than descent groups as functional entities. Marriages between members of different clan branches within the village also reinforce this solidarity, which is expressed in ways such as daily food gifts, cooperation in certain tasks, and joint ceremonial activities. On the average, a lineage comprises three households. Usually, several clans are represented in a village, with members of a single clan (clan branches) being scattered among a number of neighboring villages. Lineages are more localized in cha racter, frequently being confined to a single village and tending to occupy one section of it.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§ Some attempts at colonization were made before the 1880s, but those largely remained superficial: 'Malay and possibly Chinese traders took spoils and some slaves from western New Guinea for hundreds of years. The first European visitor may have been Jorge de Meneses, who possibly landed on the island in 1526-27 while en route to the Moluccas. The first European attempt at colonization was made in 1793 by Lieut. John Hayes, a British naval officer, near Manokwari, now in Papua province, Indonesia. It was the Dutch, however, who claimed the western half of the island as part of the Dutch East Indies in 1828; their control remained nominal until 1898, when their first permanent administrative posts were set up at Fakfak and Manokwari. Capt. John Moresby of Great Britain surveyed the southeastern coast in the 1870s, and by the 1880s European planters had moved onto New Britain and New Ireland. By 1884 the German New Guinea Company was administering the northeastern quadrant, and a British protectorate was declared over the southeastern quadrant. Despite early gold finds in British New Guinea (which from 1906 was administered by Australia as the colony of Papua), it was in German New Guinea, administered by the German imperial government after 1899, that most early economic activity took place. Plantations were widely established in the New Guinea islands and around Madang, and labourers were transported from the Sepik River region, the Markham valley, and Buka Island.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 266, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " In the 19th and early 20th centuries, New Guinea was incorporated into the British and Australian colonial systems: 'In response to Australian pressure, the British government annexed Papua in 1888. Gold was discovered shortly thereafter, resulting in a major movement of prospectors and miners to what was then the Northern District. Relations with the Papuans were bad from the start, and there were numerous killings on both sides. The Protectorate of British New Guinea became Australian territory by the passing of the Papua Act of 1905 by the Commonwealth Government of Australia. The new administration adopted a policy of peaceful penetration, and many measures of social and economic national development were introduced. Local control was in the hands of village constables, paid servants of the Crown. Chosen by European officers, they were intermediaries between the government and the people. In 1951 an eruption occurred on Mount Lamington, completely devastating a large part of the area occupied by the Orokaiva. Survivors were provided with food, medicine, and other relief by the government and were maintained in evacuatio n camps. Large-scale, expertly planned social, economic, and political development began in Papua around 1960 with the introduction of cash crops, agricultural extension work, land-title improvement, road improvement, and educational development.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§" }, { "id": 267, "polity": { "id": 117, "name": "pk_kachi_enl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Aceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -7500, "end_year": -5500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "With limited archaeological (and no literary) evidence, it is not clear what sort of polity (or polities) were present at this time. §REF§Rita Wright: The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy and Society; Cambridge: CUP, 2010, pp. 79-105§REF§" }, { "id": 268, "polity": { "id": 118, "name": "pk_kachi_lnl", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Ceramic Neolithic", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " With limited archaeological (and no literary) evidence, it is not clear what sort of polity (or polities) were present at this time. §REF§Rita Wright: The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy and Society; Cambridge: CUP, 2010, pp. 79-105§REF§ However, it is much more likely that we are dealing with a quasi-polity rather than a polity, and that there was nothing resembling a state at this time§REF§A. Ceccarelli, pers. comm. to E. Cioni, Feb 2017§REF§." }, { "id": 269, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " With limited archaeological (and no literary) evidence, it is not clear what sort of polity (or polities) were present at this time. §REF§Rita Wright: The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy and Society; Cambridge: CUP, 2010, pp. 79-105§REF§" }, { "id": 270, "polity": { "id": 126, "name": "pk_indo_greek_k", "long_name": "Indo-Greek Kingdom", "start_year": -180, "end_year": -10 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 271, "polity": { "id": 123, "name": "pk_kachi_post_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Post-Urban Period", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " It is impossible to say what sort of polity or what size might be connected with Pirak, however it seems to have been part of a larger network of exchange from I onwards, and the buildings discovered are larger than one would expect in a small village. §REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1997) From Nausharo to Pirak: Continuity and Change in the Kachi/Bolan Region from the 3rd to the 2nd Millennium BC. In, Allchin, R. and Allchin, B. (eds) South Asian Archaeology, 1995, volume I. The Ancient India and Iran Trust, Cambridge., pp 11-32.§REF§ §REF§Jarrige, J-F. (2000) Continuity and Change in the North Kachi Plain (Baluchistan, Pakistan) at the beginning of the Second Millennium BC. In, Lahiri, N. The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilization. Permanent Black, Delhi., pp345-362.§REF§ \"...it has proved impossible for the moment to define in a less summary fashion its probable area of geographical distribution. As far as the region is concerned, the mound of Pirak is the only one of its kind.\"§REF§Jarrige, J-F. (1979) Fouilles de Pirak. Paris : Diffusion de Boccard.p388§REF§" }, { "id": 272, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " The settlements and artefacts from this period suggest increasing complexity, although it is not clear what sort of polity (or polities) were present. It is likely that there was a form of centralised authority, based on the complexity of urban planning, but whether this was a chiefdom or incipient state is debated.§REF§Rita Wright: The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy and Society; Cambridge: CUP, 2010, pp. 79-105§REF§" }, { "id": 273, "polity": { "id": 124, "name": "pk_kachi_proto_historic", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " Unclear. It is seems very likely that Pirak was once part of a larger assemblage of culturally similar settlements, but, perhaps due to the erosive effects of nearby rivers, only Pirak remains§REF§(Jarrige & Enault 1976, 45-46) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. <i>Arts Asiatiques</i> 32: 29-70.§REF§" }, { "id": 274, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "nominal allegiance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " nominal allegiance: 854-1010 CE; none: 1010-1025 CE; nominal allegiance: 1025-1030 CE; none: 1030-1218 CE; vassalage: 1218-1237 CE; none: 1237-1243 CE; vassal: 1297-1317 CE; none: 1317-1352 CE<br>Until 985 CE the Sind were nominally under the control of the Abbasid Caliphate, from 985 - 1010 CE there were increasing ties to the Fatimid dynasty in Egypt. After the replacement of the Habarri by the Soomras the Sind was largely independent, although they saw the Fatimids as the ultimate religious authority. An exception to this is the period of five years during which the Sind paid tribute to Mahmud of Ghazni. After a long period of independence until 1228 CE portions of the territory were annexed by the Delhi sultanate, leading to the Sind being made a vassal of Delhi from 1297 CE to 1317 CE. A chaotic period of civil war and three claims to kingship occurred from 1317 - 1352 CE. This period coincided with the rise of the Samma Jams.§REF§Panhwar, M. H. \"Chronological Dictionary of Sindh, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 184-206§REF§ §REF§Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh, Karachi, 2003, pp.19-71§REF§" }, { "id": 275, "polity": { "id": 133, "name": "pk_sind_abbasid_fatimid", "long_name": "Sind - Abbasid-Fatimid Period", "start_year": 854, "end_year": 1193 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " nominal allegiance: 854-1010 CE; none: 1010-1025 CE; nominal allegiance: 1025-1030 CE; none: 1030-1218 CE; vassalage: 1218-1237 CE; none: 1237-1243 CE; vassal: 1297-1317 CE; none: 1317-1352 CE<br>Until 985 CE the Sind were nominally under the control of the Abbasid Caliphate, from 985 - 1010 CE there were increasing ties to the Fatimid dynasty in Egypt. After the replacement of the Habarri by the Soomras the Sind was largely independent, although they saw the Fatimids as the ultimate religious authority. An exception to this is the period of five years during which the Sind paid tribute to Mahmud of Ghazni. After a long period of independence until 1228 CE portions of the territory were annexed by the Delhi sultanate, leading to the Sind being made a vassal of Delhi from 1297 CE to 1317 CE. A chaotic period of civil war and three claims to kingship occurred from 1317 - 1352 CE. This period coincided with the rise of the Samma Jams.§REF§Panhwar, M. H. \"Chronological Dictionary of Sindh, (Karachi, 1983) pp. 184-206§REF§ §REF§Panhwar, M.H, An illustrated Historical Atlas of Soomra Kingdom of the Sindh, Karachi, 2003, pp.19-71§REF§" } ] }