Polity Suprapolity Relations List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Suprapolity Relations.
GET /api/general/polity-suprapolities/?format=api&page=2
{ "count": 382, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-suprapolities/?format=api&page=3", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-suprapolities/?format=api", "results": [ { "id": 58, "polity": { "id": 207, "name": "eg_ptolemaic_k_2", "long_name": "Ptolemaic Kingdom II", "start_year": -217, "end_year": -30 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 61, "polity": { "id": 203, "name": "eg_saite", "long_name": "Egypt - Saite Period", "start_year": -664, "end_year": -525 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 62, "polity": { "id": 520, "name": "eg_thebes_hyksos", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Hyksos Period", "start_year": -1720, "end_year": -1567 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "\"Theban ruler Kamos rejected his status as vassal.\" §REF§(Bourriau 2003, 183)§REF§" }, { "id": 63, "polity": { "id": 200, "name": "eg_thebes_libyan", "long_name": "Egypt - Thebes-Libyan Period", "start_year": -1069, "end_year": -747 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 64, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "\"Ibn Tulun never formally repudiated Abbasid authority, but with his new army and a distracted caliphate he was able to establish himself as virtually autonomous.\"§REF§(Sundelin 2013, 430-431) Shillington, K. 2013. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 3. Routledge.§REF§<br>Treaty of 886 CE Abbasids \"granted the governorship of Egypt to Khumarawayh and his descendants for a period of thirty years.\"§REF§(Sundelin 2013, 430-431) Shillington, K. 2013. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 3. Routledge.§REF§<br>Raymond describes the following as rulers of \"an autonomous state, albeit under Abbasid suzerainty.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 26)§REF§<br>Ibn Tulun (868-884 CE)<br>Khumarawayh (884-896 CE)<br>Their successors (896-905)<br>Under Abbasid control again from 905-935 CE§REF§(Raymond 2000, 34)§REF§<br>Treaty of 939 CE Abbasids \"granted to the Ikshid and his heirs governorship over Egypt and Syria for thirty years, virtually the same arrangement the Tulunids had.\" §REF§(Sundelin 2013, 430-431) Shillington, K. 2013. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 3. Routledge.§REF§<br>De facto autonomy under Ikhshid rule (935-969 CE)§REF§(Raymond 2000, 34)§REF§<br>Muhammad ibn Tughj (935-946 CE) was the first Ikshid ruler §REF§(Sundelin 2013, 430-431) Shillington, K. 2013. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 3. Routledge.§REF§§REF§(Raymond 2000, 34)§REF§<br>Two sons \"raised under the tutelage of the regent Kafur, a black eunuch from Nubia.\" (946-966 CE)§REF§(Raymond 2000, 34)§REF§<br>Kafur died 968 CE §REF§(Raymond 2000, 35)§REF§" }, { "id": 65, "polity": { "id": 361, "name": "eg_thulunid_ikhshidid", "long_name": "Egypt - Tulunid-Ikhshidid Period", "start_year": 868, "end_year": 969 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "\"Ibn Tulun never formally repudiated Abbasid authority, but with his new army and a distracted caliphate he was able to establish himself as virtually autonomous.\"§REF§(Sundelin 2013, 430-431) Shillington, K. 2013. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 3. Routledge.§REF§<br>Treaty of 886 CE Abbasids \"granted the governorship of Egypt to Khumarawayh and his descendants for a period of thirty years.\"§REF§(Sundelin 2013, 430-431) Shillington, K. 2013. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 3. Routledge.§REF§<br>Raymond describes the following as rulers of \"an autonomous state, albeit under Abbasid suzerainty.\"§REF§(Raymond 2000, 26)§REF§<br>Ibn Tulun (868-884 CE)<br>Khumarawayh (884-896 CE)<br>Their successors (896-905)<br>Under Abbasid control again from 905-935 CE§REF§(Raymond 2000, 34)§REF§<br>Treaty of 939 CE Abbasids \"granted to the Ikshid and his heirs governorship over Egypt and Syria for thirty years, virtually the same arrangement the Tulunids had.\" §REF§(Sundelin 2013, 430-431) Shillington, K. 2013. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 3. Routledge.§REF§<br>De facto autonomy under Ikhshid rule (935-969 CE)§REF§(Raymond 2000, 34)§REF§<br>Muhammad ibn Tughj (935-946 CE) was the first Ikshid ruler §REF§(Sundelin 2013, 430-431) Shillington, K. 2013. Encyclopedia of African History: Volume 3. Routledge.§REF§§REF§(Raymond 2000, 34)§REF§<br>Two sons \"raised under the tutelage of the regent Kafur, a black eunuch from Nubia.\" (946-966 CE)§REF§(Raymond 2000, 34)§REF§<br>Kafur died 968 CE §REF§(Raymond 2000, 35)§REF§" }, { "id": 66, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " At least initially, the ruler of Aksum likely made alliances with other principalities both within the Horn of Africa and South Arabia (e.g. at some point, probably in this period?, the Aksumite kings claimed to be sovereign over the Himarites§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 381) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§). At this time Aksum was not powerful enough to directly control the regions by appointing provincial officials.<br>The city of Aksum was perhaps initially a principality then became the capital province of a fuedal kingdom.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 383) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Early monarchs had to contend with hereditary, and rebellious, vassals.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 386) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§" }, { "id": 67, "polity": { "id": 208, "name": "et_aksum_emp_1", "long_name": "Axum I", "start_year": -149, "end_year": 349 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " At least initially, the ruler of Aksum likely made alliances with other principalities both within the Horn of Africa and South Arabia (e.g. at some point, probably in this period?, the Aksumite kings claimed to be sovereign over the Himarites§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 381) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§). At this time Aksum was not powerful enough to directly control the regions by appointing provincial officials.<br>The city of Aksum was perhaps initially a principality then became the capital province of a fuedal kingdom.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 383) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§ Early monarchs had to contend with hereditary, and rebellious, vassals.§REF§(Kobishanov 1981, 386) Y M. Kobishanov. Aksum: political system, economics and culture, first to fourth century. Muḥammad Jamal al-Din Mokhtar. ed. 1981. UNESCO General History of Africa. Volume II. Heinemann. UNESCO. California.§REF§" }, { "id": 68, "polity": { "id": 57, "name": "fm_truk_1", "long_name": "Chuuk - Early Truk", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1886 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " SCCS variable 84 'Higher Political Organization' is coded 'Absent', not 'Peace group', 'Alliances', 'Confederation', 'International organization'. Truk was in contact with other islands, although the specifics of these connections are not always known: 'The Trukic-speaking people of the Mortlock Islands still maintained active trading links with Puluwat, the Hall Islands, Truk, Nukuoro, and Ngatik when they were studied by Girschner (1912:181-183). They had made voyages to Ponape up to about two generations earlier, and the names of the last navigators to make them were still remembered. These atolls were the obvious conduit by which information and ideas must have come from Ponape to Truk. Ponapean influence on the Mortlocks and, by extension, on Truk is evident in the number of clan names that echo Ponapean names and titles. 24 The Mortlock Islanders also echo Ponapean practice regarding honorific titles in their use of the prefix sowu- ‘lord, master of’ for chiefly lineages, a practice that was not picked up in Truk for local chiefly lineages, but is reflected in the titles of the legendary island overlords, such as Sowuwóóniiras, Sowufa, and Sowumwáár.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1986. “Sky World And This World: The Place Of Kachaw In Micronesian Cosmology”, 561§REF§ 'In the light of evidence now available, then, it seems most reasonable to conclude that the cult of Kachaw was introduced into Truk via the Mortlock Islands from Ponape (see the discussion of this possibility by King and Parker [1984:254-256]). Whether its introduction was the work of Ponapeans in alliance with Mortlock Islanders or of Mortlock Islanders with Ponapean connections we cannot now say.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1986. “Sky World And This World: The Place Of Kachaw In Micronesian Cosmology”, 562§REF§ We have assumed that no permanent alliances were present in what appears to be the period of regional disintegration that this sheet covers. However, oral traditions and archeological evidence indicate that the Chuuk islands experienced a higher degree of regional integration prior to the 18th century: 'I mention the foregoing in order to show that the present political and learned traditions of Truk derive from a set of older institutions, which they still echo. These institutions involved the political domination of Truk by a presumably immigrant clan whose patron god was Sowukachaw, for whom a shrine was maintained on Achaw Peak, the spiritual seat and source of supernatural power of that dominant clan. A dual system of titles, perhaps not unlike that in Ponape, may have been a feature of the organization of rank and authority, providing the basis for a subsequent division of Truk into the rival political and magico-religious leagues of immediate precolonial times. Truk and Ponape were not the only places in Micronesia to have a cult that associated kingship or high chiefship with a thunder god and basaltic stone. Mention has already been made of the sacred basaltic stones at Nan Moadol on Ponape and the association of one of them with the god of thunder. Basaltic peaks on Ponape were spirit places, and basaltic monoliths the abodes of spirits. This association of basalt with spirits appears [Page 561] even in the Marshall Islands. On Namu and Aur atolls, there were shrines with basaltic stones on them at the places of origin of the clans of paramount chiefs (Finsch 1893:396). The one on Namu, thrown into the sea by a zealous missionary, embodied a clan’s founder (Pollock 1977; Erdland 1914:345); and according to Erdland (1914:343), the totem of the high chiefly clan on Ebon was the thunder, Läköta (‘Sir Cloud’, see ļa- and kōd¸o in Abo et al. 1976). From Ngatik, near Ponape, the Bishop Museum has in its possession an old photograph of an altar. On top of it, according to a notation, is the “stone god,” from its appearance a block of basalt.' §REF§Goodenough, Ward Hunt 1986. “Sky World And This World: The Place Of Kachaw In Micronesian Cosmology”, 560p§REF§ The Spanish were present in Micronesia from the 16th century onwards, but did not govern the Chuuk islands directly: 'Micronesia has a complicated colonial history. Guam, the southernmost of the Mariana Islands, became the first inhabited Pacific island to be visited by a European when the Portuguese navigator and explorer Ferdinand Magellan landed there in 1521. The Marianas became the first European colony in Micronesia in 1668, when Spain took control of the island chain. In 1670 the indigenous Chamorro people rebelled, and a quarter century of sporadic warfare followed. That conflict, along with diseases introduced by Europeans, reduced the local population from about 100,000 to 4,000. Most of the survivors were relocated to colonial settlements, and many Chamorro women married Spanish or Filipino troops. In the process, much of Chamorro culture was destroyed, although the language continued to be widely spoken in the early 21st century. Other nations that staked colonial claims in various parts of Micronesia included Germany, Britain, the United States, Japan, and Australia.' §REF§(Kahn, Fischer and Kiste 2017) Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/XHZTEDKE</a>.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 69, "polity": { "id": 58, "name": "fm_truk_2", "long_name": "Chuuk - Late Truk", "start_year": 1886, "end_year": 1948 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "other_polity": { "id": 806, "name": "de_hohenzollern_3", "long_name": "Germany - Hohenzollern Dynasty", "start_year": 1871, "end_year": 1918 }, "comment": null, "description": "SCCS variable 84 'Higher Political Organization' is coded 'Absent', not 'Peace group', 'Alliances', 'Confederation', 'International organization'. The German authorities disarmed the native population and superimposed a colonial administrative structure onto the native system of chiefs and lineages: 'In 1904 the disarming of the Truk people was undertaken by the “Kondor.” There were 436 guns and 2,531 cartridges confiscated. For better control the government appointed six head-chiefs, banished some swashbucklers who did not want to submit, and turned out the Japanese. With this a peaceful development was initiated. The missions (Protestant mission since 1879, Catholic mission since 1912) were able to work undisturbed. Unfortunately, the German government took little notice of Truk, since it was too preoccupied with the other islands. Yet many things were accomplished. Under the last director of the station, A. Überhorst, the lagoon was given new impetus in every respect. The relationship between officials and the population was usually a good one, under Mr. Überhorst even a cordial one. Anyone who was on Truk in those years certainly did not see any bad treatment of the natives. Much was done also with regard to health; in particular Dr. Mayer and his wife traveled from island to island without rest in order to take care of the sick. If during the Japanese occupation a young naval officer was not ashamed to assert that the Germans had done nothing for the islands, anyone who lived on the islands during the Japanese period can only say from the heart: “God protect the poor Truk people under the Japanese.”' §REF§Bollig, Laurentius 1927. “Inhabitants Of The Truk Islands: Religion, Life And A Short Grammar Of A Micronesian People”, 253§REF§ The Japanese authorities introduced schooling, producing a small elite of native petty officials: 'The purpose of the schools for natives, judging from both reported policies and the Japanese school regulations was to civilize the natives and make them into loyal and economically useful citizens of the Japanese empire. While there was theoretically no limit to the higher education which the native child with sufficient ability and financial support might obtain, in actual fact only a minority of Trukese children attended the fourth and fifth grades, and only a minority of those completing fifth grade obtained further education at the vocational schools. Apparently no Trukese native obtained any academic education beyond fifth grade, except incidentally along with vocational training. The system was geared in effect to produce a supply of general laborers and domestic servants who understood the Japanese language, plus a small elite of skilled laborers and petty officials.' §REF§Fischer, John L. 1961. “Japanese Schools For The Natives Of Truk, Caroline Islands”, 84§REF§" }, { "id": 70, "polity": { "id": 448, "name": "fr_atlantic_complex", "long_name": "Atlantic Complex", "start_year": -2200, "end_year": -1000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 71, "polity": { "id": 447, "name": "fr_beaker_eba", "long_name": "Beaker Culture", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 72, "polity": { "id": 460, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Bourbon", "start_year": 1589, "end_year": 1660 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 73, "polity": { "id": 461, "name": "fr_bourbon_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Bourbon", "start_year": 1660, "end_year": 1815 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 74, "polity": { "id": 457, "name": "fr_capetian_k_1", "long_name": "Proto-French Kingdom", "start_year": 987, "end_year": 1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 75, "polity": { "id": 458, "name": "fr_capetian_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Capetian", "start_year": 1150, "end_year": 1328 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 77, "polity": { "id": 449, "name": "fr_hallstatt_a_b1", "long_name": "Hallstatt A-B1", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 78, "polity": { "id": 450, "name": "fr_hallstatt_b2_3", "long_name": "Hallstatt B2-3", "start_year": -900, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Point against: the Paris Basin region was very much on the periphery of the Hallstatt zone and their local chiefs might not have been close enough to the important trade center (Austria) to have been vassals at any time.<br>Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC)<br>\"The Mediterranean world-economy integrated the North-Alpine complex during Hallstatt B2-3/C. The Greek and Etruscan towns experienced an increasing demand for raw materials which led them to enlarge their supply areas until they embraced a large part of the continent. In this vast exchange system, certain well-positioned local chiefs played the role of privileged intermediaries. They were able to monopolize trade and exchange, and controlled the supply of Mediterranean prestigue goods, ultimately extending their influence into neighbouring territories. They reduced local rulers to vassal status. \" §REF§(Brun 1995, 22-23)§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 79, "polity": { "id": 451, "name": "fr_hallstatt_c", "long_name": "Hallstatt C", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Point against: the Paris Basin region was very much on the periphery of the Hallstatt zone and their local chiefs might not have been close enough to the important trade center (Austria) to have been vassals at any time.<br>Hallstatt B2/3-C(900-600 BC)<br>\"The Mediterranean world-economy integrated the North-Alpine complex during Hallstatt B2-3/C. The Greek and Etruscan towns experienced an increasing demand for raw materials which led them to enlarge their supply areas until they embraced a large part of the continent. In this vast exchange system, certain well-positioned local chiefs played the role of privileged intermediaries. They were able to monopolize trade and exchange, and controlled the supply of Mediterranean prestigue goods, ultimately extending their influence into neighbouring territories. They reduced local rulers to vassal status. \" §REF§(Brun 1995, 22-23)§REF§" }, { "id": 81, "polity": { "id": 304, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_1", "long_name": "Early Merovingian", "start_year": 481, "end_year": 543 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 82, "polity": { "id": 456, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_3", "long_name": "Proto-Carolingian", "start_year": 687, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 83, "polity": { "id": 306, "name": "fr_merovingian_emp_2", "long_name": "Middle Merovingian", "start_year": 543, "end_year": 687 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 84, "polity": { "id": 453, "name": "fr_la_tene_a_b1", "long_name": "La Tene A-B1", "start_year": -475, "end_year": -325 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Tribes formed alliances with other tribes.<br>450-250 BCE Migration Period: \"The migrations that these warrior societies undertook over the next 200 years effectively broke the bond between tribe and its ancestral territory. The institution of kingship declined among the continental Celts throughout the Migration Period as tribes split up and coalesced into new communities.\" §REF§(Allen 2007, 61)§REF§" }, { "id": 85, "polity": { "id": 454, "name": "fr_la_tene_b2_c1", "long_name": "La Tene B2-C1", "start_year": -325, "end_year": -175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "Tribes formed alliances with other tribes.<br>450-250 BCE Migration Period: \"The migrations that these warrior societies undertook over the next 200 years effectively broke the bond between tribe and its ancestral territory. The institution of kingship declined among the continental Celts throughout the Migration Period as tribes split up and coalesced into new communities.\" §REF§(Allen 2007, 61)§REF§" }, { "id": 86, "polity": { "id": 455, "name": "fr_la_tene_c2_d", "long_name": "La Tene C2-D", "start_year": -175, "end_year": -27 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "comment": null, "description": "City states formed alliances with other tribes and with Rome. Rome used alliances with Gaulish tribes/city states to further its aims. Rome active in Southern Gaul from 2nd century BCE.§REF§(Wells 1999, 70-73)§REF§" }, { "id": 87, "polity": { "id": 333, "name": "fr_valois_k_1", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Early Valois", "start_year": 1328, "end_year": 1450 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 88, "polity": { "id": 459, "name": "fr_valois_k_2", "long_name": "French Kingdom - Late Valois", "start_year": 1450, "end_year": 1589 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 89, "polity": null, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 90, "polity": { "id": 113, "name": "gh_akan", "long_name": "Akan - Pre-Ashanti", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " During the colonial period, multiple Akan states established commercial relations with Portuguese, Dutch, and later British traders: 'A revolution in Ghanaian history was initiated by the establishment of direct sea trade with Europe following the arrival on the coast of Portuguese mariners in 1471. Initially Europe’s main interest in the country was as a source of gold, a commodity that was readily available on the coast in exchange for such European exports as cloth, hardware, beads, metals, spirits, arms, and ammunition. This gave rise to the name Gold Coast, by which the country was known until 1957. In an attempt to preserve a monopoly of the trade, the Portuguese initiated the practice of erecting stone fortresses (Elmina Castle, dating from 1482, was the first) on the coast on sites leased from the native states. In the 17th century the Portuguese monopoly, already considerably eroded, gave way completely when traders from the Netherlands, England, Denmark, Sweden, and Prussia-Protestant sea powers antagonistic to Iberian imperial pretensions-discovered that the commercial relations developed with the Gold Coast states could be adapted to the export of slaves, then in rapidly increasing demand for the American plantations, as well as to gold trading. By the mid-18th century the coastal scene was dominated by the presence of about 40 forts controlled by Dutch, British, or Danish merchants. The presence of these permanent European bases on the coast had far-reaching consequences. The new centres of trade thus established were much more accessible than were the Sudanese emporia, and this, coupled with the greater capacity and efficiency of the sea-borne trade compared with the ancient overland routes, gradually brought about the reversal of the direction of the trade flow. The new wealth, tools and arms, and techniques and ideas introduced through close contact with Europeans initiated political and social as well as economic changes. The states north of the forest, hitherto the wealthiest and most powerful, declined in the face of new combinations farther south. At the end of the 17th century, the Akan state of Akwamu created an empire that, stretching from the central Gold Coast eastward to Dahomey, sought to control the trade roads to the coast of the whole eastern Gold Coast. The Akwamu empire was short-lived, but its example soon stimulated a union of the Asante (Ashanti) states of the central forest (see Asante empire), under the leadership of the founding Asantehene (king) Osei Tutu. The Asante union, after establishing its dominance over other neighbouring Akan states, expanded north of the forest to conquer Bono, Banda, Gonja, and Dagomba.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana/Daily-life-and-social-customs#toc76828\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Ghana/Daily-life-and-social-customs#toc76828</a>§REF§ 'The Portuguese first arrived in 1471 and later built a trading post at Elmina in 1486. Drawn by the trading activity on the coast, descendants of the defunct Bonda and Kumbu kingdoms settled along the north-south trade routes connecting the coast to the Niger bend region. The Queen mother of the Bonda founded the Akyerekyere kingdom along one trade route, which became a clearinghouse for goods from the coast. A prince of the former Kumbu royal house founded the Akumu-Akoto kingdom on another trade route. The Portuguese referred to this latter kingdom as the 'Acanes,' hence the name Akan. Emigrants from Akumu-Akoto founded a second city-state to the east, called Akwamu. Emigrants from Akwamu in turn founded the Asantemanso kingdom in the Kumasi region. Mande-speaking immigrants conquered the Akyerekyere kingdom and later the Asantemanso kingdom to become the dominant power in the region, the Denkyira. In 1701, the Asantemanso under the leadership of Osei Tutu (d. 1717) rebelled and defeated the Denkyira.'§REF§HRAF Cultural Summary for 'Akan' Michelle Gilbert, Robert O. Lagacé, and Ian Skoggard§REF§ The European presence was economic in orientation: 'The sole reason for the presence of Europeans in West Africa was, and is even now, principally trade, and for the purposes of trade only were forts built and settlements founded, and the power and jurisdiction of the local rulers subsequently undermined. The trade consisted mostly in barter and or exchange, nor was the sale of slaves inconsiderable.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. \"Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Stody Of The Rise of British Gold Coast Juristiction, Etc., Etc., 74§REF§ European traders established agreements with local rulers, but these should not be characterized as political-military alliances: 'Pursuing the same object, they claimed tribute on the takings of the fishermen at Axim, Elmina, and Mowre, who were forbidden under severe penalties from holding any communication whatever and from trading with any other Europeans. Moreover, they attempted to exercise in these coast towns jurisdiction over all civil and criminal matters, and assumed the power of life and death. In spite, however, of these oppressive measures, they were compelled to, and did pay, every year to the local rulers and their people, the rents for their forts and other establishments; nor could they wholly deter the people from trading or otherwise dealing with other European traders, against whom the Dutch now took extreme measures as enemies and interlopers.' §REF§Sarbah, John Mensah 1968. “Fanti National Constitution: A Short Treatise On The Constitution And Government Of The Fanti, Asanti, And Other Akan Tribes Of West Africa Together With A Brief Account Of The Discovery Of The Gold Coast By Portuguese Navigators, A Short Narration Of Early English Voyages, And A Study Of The Rise Of British Gold Coast Jurisdiction, Etc., Etc.”, 72§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 91, "polity": { "id": 114, "name": "gh_ashanti_emp", "long_name": "Ashanti Empire", "start_year": 1701, "end_year": 1895 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " 'Although ethnically and culturally closely related, the Akan have never had a common polity, and they may be roughly divided into the Brong, Akyem, Akuapim, Kwawu, Assen-Twifo, Wasa, Fante-Agona, Nzima-Evalue, Ahanta and Ashanti, each group speaking a distinct dialect.' §REF§Sarpong, Peter 1977. “Girls’ Nubility Rites In Ashanti”, 1§REF§ 'Greater Asante' was a conglomerate made up of sub-polities paying allegiance to Kumasi and tributary states: 'First, there was the Kumasi state, administered like any other Asante state by the Asantehene and his council members. Second, Kumasi, together with the neighbouring Asante-Twi-speaking states, formed the Asante Union, with a council consisting of the Asantehene, some members of the Kumasi state council, and the heads of the other Asante states. Third, there were the “provinces,” consisting of the other Twi-speaking peoples north and south of Asante. Fourth, there were the non-Twi-speaking protectorate and tributary states southeast and north of the Twi-speaking peoples.' §REF§Arhin, Kwame 1983. “Peasants In 19Th-Century Asante”, 474§REF§ This structure did not depend on alliances with external forces. SCCS variable 84 'Higher Political Organization' is coded 'Absent', not 'Peace group', 'Alliances', 'Confederation', or 'International organization'." }, { "id": 92, "polity": { "id": 67, "name": "gr_crete_archaic", "long_name": "Archaic Crete", "start_year": -710, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 93, "polity": { "id": 74, "name": "gr_crete_emirate", "long_name": "The Emirate of Crete", "start_year": 824, "end_year": 961 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 94, "polity": { "id": 66, "name": "gr_crete_geometric", "long_name": "Geometric Crete", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 95, "polity": { "id": 63, "name": "gr_crete_mono_palace", "long_name": "Monopalatial Crete", "start_year": -1450, "end_year": -1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "It is very likely that the ruling Knossian elite was in contact with the powerful dynasties of mainland Greece. The relations between these political authorities is unknown." }, { "id": 96, "polity": { "id": 64, "name": "gr_crete_post_palace_1", "long_name": "Postpalatial Crete", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "It is very likely that the regional ruling elites were in contact with the powerful dynasties of mainland Greece during the Late Minoan IIIB period. The relation between these groups is unknown." }, { "id": 97, "polity": { "id": 17, "name": "us_hawaii_1", "long_name": "Hawaii I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 98, "polity": { "id": 18, "name": "us_hawaii_2", "long_name": "Hawaii II", "start_year": 1200, "end_year": 1580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 99, "polity": { "id": 153, "name": "id_iban_1", "long_name": "Iban - Pre-Brooke", "start_year": 1650, "end_year": 1841 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " The Iban claim to originate in the Kapuas Basin, but migration was common: 'The Iban trace their origins to the Kapuas Lake region of Kalimantan. With a growing population creating pressures on limited amounts of productive land, the Iban fought members of other tribes aggressively, practicing headhunting and slavery. Enslavement of captives contributed to the necessity to move into new areas. By the middle of the 19th century, they were well established in the First and Second Divisions, and a few had pioneered the vast Rejang River valley. Reacting to the establishment of the Brooke Raj in Sarawak in 1841, thousands of Iban migrated to the middle and upper regions of the Rejang, and by the last quarter of the century had entered all remaining Divisions.' §REF§Sutlive, Vinson H. Jr. and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§ European and Chinese traders and pirates were present on Borneo even before the 17th century, but Iban territory was not part of the formal colonial system at the time: 'Modern European knowledge of Borneo dates from travelers who passed through Southeast Asia in the 14th century. The first recorded European visitor was the Franciscan friar Odoric of Pordenone, who visited Talamasim on his way from India to China in 1330. The Portuguese, followed by the Spanish, established trading relations on the island early in the 16th century. At the beginning of the 17th century the Portuguese and Spanish trade monopoly was broken by the Dutch, who, intervening in the affairs of the Muslim kingdoms, succeeded in replacing Mataram influence with their own. The coastal strip along the South China and Sulu seas was long oriented toward the Philippines to the northeast and was often raided by Sulu pirates. British interests, particularly in the north and west, diminished that of the Dutch. The Brunei sultanate was an Islamic kingdom that at one time had controlled the whole island but by the 19th century ruled only in the north and northwest. In 1841 Sarawak was split away on the southwest, becoming an independent kingdom ruled by the Brooke Raj. North Borneo (later Sabah) to the northeast was obtained by a British company to promote trade and suppress piracy, but it was not demarcated until 1912. Those losses left a much-reduced Brunei, which became a British protectorate in 1888.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean</a>§REF§ Iban communities were de facto self-governing before the Brooke Raj period: 'Each longhouse, as each BILEK, is an autonomous unit. Traditionally the core of each house was a group of descendants of the founders. Houses near one another on the same river or in the same region were commonly allied, marrying among themselves, raiding together beyond their territories, and resolving disputes by peaceful means. Regionalism, deriving from these alliances, in which Iban distinguished themselves from other allied groups, persist in modern state politics. Essentially egalitarian, Iban are aware of long-standing status distinctions among themselves of RAJA BERANI (wealthy and brave), MENSI SARIBU (commoners), and ULUN (slaves). Prestige still accrues to descendants of the first status, disdain to descendants of the third.' §REF§Sutlive, Vinson H. Jr. and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§ 'Prior to the arrival of the British adventurer, James Brooke, there were no permanent leaders, but the affairs of each house were directed by consultations of family leaders. Men of influence included renowned warriors, bards, augurs and other specialists. Brooke, who became Rajah of Sarawak, and his nephew, Charles Johnson, created political positions -- headman (TUAI RUMAH), regional chief (PENGHULU), paramount chief (TEMENGGONG) -- to restructure Iban society for administrative control, especially for purposes of taxation and the suppression of head-hunting. The creation of permanent political positions and the establishment of political parties in the early 1960s have profoundly changed the Iban.' §REF§Sutlive, Vinson H. Jr. and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Iban§REF§ It is assumed here that this was true prior to the 17th century as well." }, { "id": 100, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " SCCS variable 84 'Higher Political Organization' is coded 'Absent', not 'Peace group', 'Alliances', 'Confederation', or 'International organization'. During White Rajah rule, the Iban population and territory were not part of the formal British colonial system. This changed in 1946 when Sarawak was ceded to the crown. 'The 19th century marked the full flower of the British Empire. Administration and policy changed during the century from the haphazard arrangements of the 17th and 18th centuries to the sophisticated system characteristic of Joseph Chamberlain’s tenure (1895-1900) in the Colonial Office. That office, which began in 1801, was first an appendage of the Home Office and the Board of Trade, but by the 1850s it had become a separate department with a growing staff and a continuing policy; it was the means by which discipline and pressure were exerted on the colonial governments when such action was considered necessary. [...] In the wake of the Indian Mutiny (1857), the British crown assumed the East India Company’s governmental authority in India. Britain’s acquisition of Burma (Myanmar) was completed in 1886, while its conquest of the Punjab (1849) and of Balochistān (1854-76) provided substantial new territory in the Indian subcontinent itself. The French completion of the Suez Canal (1869) provided Britain with a much shorter sea route to India. Britain responded to this opportunity by expanding its port at Aden, establishing a protectorate in Somaliland (now Somalia), and extending its influence in the sheikhdoms of southern Arabia and the Persian Gulf. Cyprus, which was, like Gibraltar and Malta, a link in the chain of communication with India through the Mediterranean, was occupied in 1878. Elsewhere, British influence in the Far East expanded with the development of the Straits Settlements and the federated Malay states, and in the 1880s protectorates were formed over Brunei and Sarawak.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/British-Empire\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/British-Empire</a>§REF§ Under White Rajah rule, these protectorates were largely autonomous, and only in 1946 were they ceded to the Crown: 'In September 1941, on the centenary of Brooke rule, the third raja proclaimed a constitution designed to establish self-government for Sarawak, but shortly afterward the state fell to the Japanese. When World War II was over, Vyner Brooke decided that Sarawak should be ceded to Great Britain, and, after a bitter family feud, he formally terminated Brooke rule on July 1, 1946.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj</a>§REF§ 'In July 1946 both Sarawak and North Borneo were made British crown colonies. In Dutch Borneo a strong nationalist sentiment developed and led to fighting between Indonesian and Dutch forces as the latter attempted to reimpose Netherlands control. Sovereignty passed to the Indonesians in 1949, and in 1950 a new constitution proclaimed Dutch Borneo part of the Republic of Indonesia. The British government relinquished its sovereignty over Sabah and Sarawak in 1963, when these territories joined the Malaysian federation. This marked the commencement of Indonesian hostilities in the form of guerrilla raids across the border. These raids ceased by agreement in 1966. Except for the period of Japanese occupation, Brunei was under British protection from 1888 to 1983. It became fully independent on Jan. 1, 1984.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 101, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " SCCS variable 84 'Higher Political Organization' is coded 'Absent', not 'Peace group', 'Alliances', 'Confederation', or 'International organization'. During White Rajah rule, the Iban population and territory were not part of the formal British colonial system. This changed in 1946 when Sarawak was ceded to the crown. 'The 19th century marked the full flower of the British Empire. Administration and policy changed during the century from the haphazard arrangements of the 17th and 18th centuries to the sophisticated system characteristic of Joseph Chamberlain’s tenure (1895-1900) in the Colonial Office. That office, which began in 1801, was first an appendage of the Home Office and the Board of Trade, but by the 1850s it had become a separate department with a growing staff and a continuing policy; it was the means by which discipline and pressure were exerted on the colonial governments when such action was considered necessary. [...] In the wake of the Indian Mutiny (1857), the British crown assumed the East India Company’s governmental authority in India. Britain’s acquisition of Burma (Myanmar) was completed in 1886, while its conquest of the Punjab (1849) and of Balochistān (1854-76) provided substantial new territory in the Indian subcontinent itself. The French completion of the Suez Canal (1869) provided Britain with a much shorter sea route to India. Britain responded to this opportunity by expanding its port at Aden, establishing a protectorate in Somaliland (now Somalia), and extending its influence in the sheikhdoms of southern Arabia and the Persian Gulf. Cyprus, which was, like Gibraltar and Malta, a link in the chain of communication with India through the Mediterranean, was occupied in 1878. Elsewhere, British influence in the Far East expanded with the development of the Straits Settlements and the federated Malay states, and in the 1880s protectorates were formed over Brunei and Sarawak.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/British-Empire\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/British-Empire</a>§REF§ Under White Rajah rule, these protectorates were largely autonomous, and only in 1946 were they ceded to the Crown: 'In September 1941, on the centenary of Brooke rule, the third raja proclaimed a constitution designed to establish self-government for Sarawak, but shortly afterward the state fell to the Japanese. When World War II was over, Vyner Brooke decided that Sarawak should be ceded to Great Britain, and, after a bitter family feud, he formally terminated Brooke rule on July 1, 1946.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj</a>§REF§ 'In July 1946 both Sarawak and North Borneo were made British crown colonies. In Dutch Borneo a strong nationalist sentiment developed and led to fighting between Indonesian and Dutch forces as the latter attempted to reimpose Netherlands control. Sovereignty passed to the Indonesians in 1949, and in 1950 a new constitution proclaimed Dutch Borneo part of the Republic of Indonesia. The British government relinquished its sovereignty over Sabah and Sarawak in 1963, when these territories joined the Malaysian federation. This marked the commencement of Indonesian hostilities in the form of guerrilla raids across the border. These raids ceased by agreement in 1966. Except for the period of Japanese occupation, Brunei was under British protection from 1888 to 1983. It became fully independent on Jan. 1, 1984.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 154, "name": "id_iban_2", "long_name": "Iban - Brooke Raj and Colonial", "start_year": 1841, "end_year": 1987 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " SCCS variable 84 'Higher Political Organization' is coded 'Absent', not 'Peace group', 'Alliances', 'Confederation', or 'International organization'. During White Rajah rule, the Iban population and territory were not part of the formal British colonial system. This changed in 1946 when Sarawak was ceded to the crown. 'The 19th century marked the full flower of the British Empire. Administration and policy changed during the century from the haphazard arrangements of the 17th and 18th centuries to the sophisticated system characteristic of Joseph Chamberlain’s tenure (1895-1900) in the Colonial Office. That office, which began in 1801, was first an appendage of the Home Office and the Board of Trade, but by the 1850s it had become a separate department with a growing staff and a continuing policy; it was the means by which discipline and pressure were exerted on the colonial governments when such action was considered necessary. [...] In the wake of the Indian Mutiny (1857), the British crown assumed the East India Company’s governmental authority in India. Britain’s acquisition of Burma (Myanmar) was completed in 1886, while its conquest of the Punjab (1849) and of Balochistān (1854-76) provided substantial new territory in the Indian subcontinent itself. The French completion of the Suez Canal (1869) provided Britain with a much shorter sea route to India. Britain responded to this opportunity by expanding its port at Aden, establishing a protectorate in Somaliland (now Somalia), and extending its influence in the sheikhdoms of southern Arabia and the Persian Gulf. Cyprus, which was, like Gibraltar and Malta, a link in the chain of communication with India through the Mediterranean, was occupied in 1878. Elsewhere, British influence in the Far East expanded with the development of the Straits Settlements and the federated Malay states, and in the 1880s protectorates were formed over Brunei and Sarawak.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/British-Empire\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/British-Empire</a>§REF§ Under White Rajah rule, these protectorates were largely autonomous, and only in 1946 were they ceded to the Crown: 'In September 1941, on the centenary of Brooke rule, the third raja proclaimed a constitution designed to establish self-government for Sarawak, but shortly afterward the state fell to the Japanese. When World War II was over, Vyner Brooke decided that Sarawak should be ceded to Great Britain, and, after a bitter family feud, he formally terminated Brooke rule on July 1, 1946.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Brooke-Raj</a>§REF§ 'In July 1946 both Sarawak and North Borneo were made British crown colonies. In Dutch Borneo a strong nationalist sentiment developed and led to fighting between Indonesian and Dutch forces as the latter attempted to reimpose Netherlands control. Sovereignty passed to the Indonesians in 1949, and in 1950 a new constitution proclaimed Dutch Borneo part of the Republic of Indonesia. The British government relinquished its sovereignty over Sabah and Sarawak in 1963, when these territories joined the Malaysian federation. This marked the commencement of Indonesian hostilities in the form of guerrilla raids across the border. These raids ceased by agreement in 1966. Except for the period of Japanese occupation, Brunei was under British protection from 1888 to 1983. It became fully independent on Jan. 1, 1984.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Borneo-island-Pacific-Ocean</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 47, "name": "id_kalingga_k", "long_name": "Kalingga Kingdom", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 732 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " No political/military alliance. \"Ho-ling, based in central Java, was one of two fifth-century Java coastal centres with which the Chinese court interacted (Ho-lo-tan in the Tarum River basin near modern Jakarta was the other). When in the seventh century the kings of Srivijaya created their polity, they subordinated and incorporated into their realm a number of previously independent river-mouth ports on the northern and western coasts of Java, but they made no effort to include the rest of the island. In particular, they made no effort to subordinate central Java and its Kedu Plain, a unique and valuable part of the maritime realm. The relationship that developed between Srivijaya and central Java was a mutually advantageous, symbiotic linkage between a state dependent on the control of international trade and a rice-plain that remained somewhat distant from that trade.\" §REF§(Tarling 1993, 203)§REF§" }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 48, "name": "id_medang_k", "long_name": "Medang Kingdom", "start_year": 732, "end_year": 1019 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " 732-800 C.E.: alliance Dharaindra (rr. 780-800) ascended to become the Maharajah of Srivijaya. The nature of the Sailendra's close relationship with the neighbouring Srivijaya empire is complex. It seems that in earlier times, the Sailendra family was within the Srivijayan mandala (sphere of influence), and that later the Sailendra's monarch rose to become the head of Srivijaya. It is uncertain as to whether this was due to a military campaign or close alliance.§REF§(Muljana 2006, 209)§REF§ It seems that over the course of the ninth century, however, any alliance broke down, as in 990 Medang launched a campaign against Srivijaya, leading ultimately to the downfall of Medang in 1006.§REF§(Muljana 2006, 246)§REF§" }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "unknown", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "1550 BCE is the approximate point at which Thutmose I expelled the Hyksos from the Nile Delta, following which the Egyptians invaded Canaan and imposed tribute. For the next several decades, Egyptian control was relatively light, and sometime around 1470 BCE (plus or minus a decade) several Canaanite cities joined a confederation led by Durusha, king of Kadesh, in rebellion against Egypt. Thutmose III then invaded Canaan, leading to the Battle of Megiddo in which the Egyptians won decisively. Following their victory, Egyptian rule become much more involved and oppressive; military garrisons and administrative centers were built across Canaan, and heavy tribute was exacted. (However, Egyptian control was not uniform across Canaan, for example: \"At the start of the Late Bronze Age (LB IA), Jaffa remained beyond the reach of the ad hoc campaigns of early 18th-Dynasty pharaohs, which appear to have been concentrated in the coastal plain to the south of Jaffa, with occasional raids made into the northern Levant from the Syrian coast. Jaffa’s first historical mention, as Yapu, occurs among a list of towns that were conquered in connection with the first campaign of Thutmose III…\"§REF§Burke et al. (2017:90).§REF§) Egyptian control periodically stimulated violent Canaanite resistance, sometimes to the extent of destroying whole Egyptian settlements (as with the 12th-century destruction of Jaffa).§REF§Burke et al. (2017).§REF§ This continued until the fall of Bronze Age Canaan." }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "nominal allegiance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "1550 BCE is the approximate point at which Thutmose I expelled the Hyksos from the Nile Delta, following which the Egyptians invaded Canaan and imposed tribute. For the next several decades, Egyptian control was relatively light, and sometime around 1470 BCE (plus or minus a decade) several Canaanite cities joined a confederation led by Durusha, king of Kadesh, in rebellion against Egypt. Thutmose III then invaded Canaan, leading to the Battle of Megiddo in which the Egyptians won decisively. Following their victory, Egyptian rule become much more involved and oppressive; military garrisons and administrative centers were built across Canaan, and heavy tribute was exacted. (However, Egyptian control was not uniform across Canaan, for example: \"At the start of the Late Bronze Age (LB IA), Jaffa remained beyond the reach of the ad hoc campaigns of early 18th-Dynasty pharaohs, which appear to have been concentrated in the coastal plain to the south of Jaffa, with occasional raids made into the northern Levant from the Syrian coast. Jaffa’s first historical mention, as Yapu, occurs among a list of towns that were conquered in connection with the first campaign of Thutmose III…\"§REF§Burke et al. (2017:90).§REF§) Egyptian control periodically stimulated violent Canaanite resistance, sometimes to the extent of destroying whole Egyptian settlements (as with the 12th-century destruction of Jaffa).§REF§Burke et al. (2017).§REF§ This continued until the fall of Bronze Age Canaan." }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "alliance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "1550 BCE is the approximate point at which Thutmose I expelled the Hyksos from the Nile Delta, following which the Egyptians invaded Canaan and imposed tribute. For the next several decades, Egyptian control was relatively light, and sometime around 1470 BCE (plus or minus a decade) several Canaanite cities joined a confederation led by Durusha, king of Kadesh, in rebellion against Egypt. Thutmose III then invaded Canaan, leading to the Battle of Megiddo in which the Egyptians won decisively. Following their victory, Egyptian rule become much more involved and oppressive; military garrisons and administrative centers were built across Canaan, and heavy tribute was exacted. (However, Egyptian control was not uniform across Canaan, for example: \"At the start of the Late Bronze Age (LB IA), Jaffa remained beyond the reach of the ad hoc campaigns of early 18th-Dynasty pharaohs, which appear to have been concentrated in the coastal plain to the south of Jaffa, with occasional raids made into the northern Levant from the Syrian coast. Jaffa’s first historical mention, as Yapu, occurs among a list of towns that were conquered in connection with the first campaign of Thutmose III…\"§REF§Burke et al. (2017:90).§REF§) Egyptian control periodically stimulated violent Canaanite resistance, sometimes to the extent of destroying whole Egyptian settlements (as with the 12th-century destruction of Jaffa).§REF§Burke et al. (2017).§REF§ This continued until the fall of Bronze Age Canaan." }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 103, "name": "il_canaan", "long_name": "Canaan", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1175 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": "1550 BCE is the approximate point at which Thutmose I expelled the Hyksos from the Nile Delta, following which the Egyptians invaded Canaan and imposed tribute. For the next several decades, Egyptian control was relatively light, and sometime around 1470 BCE (plus or minus a decade) several Canaanite cities joined a confederation led by Durusha, king of Kadesh, in rebellion against Egypt. Thutmose III then invaded Canaan, leading to the Battle of Megiddo in which the Egyptians won decisively. Following their victory, Egyptian rule become much more involved and oppressive; military garrisons and administrative centers were built across Canaan, and heavy tribute was exacted. (However, Egyptian control was not uniform across Canaan, for example: \"At the start of the Late Bronze Age (LB IA), Jaffa remained beyond the reach of the ad hoc campaigns of early 18th-Dynasty pharaohs, which appear to have been concentrated in the coastal plain to the south of Jaffa, with occasional raids made into the northern Levant from the Syrian coast. Jaffa’s first historical mention, as Yapu, occurs among a list of towns that were conquered in connection with the first campaign of Thutmose III…\"§REF§Burke et al. (2017:90).§REF§) Egyptian control periodically stimulated violent Canaanite resistance, sometimes to the extent of destroying whole Egyptian settlements (as with the 12th-century destruction of Jaffa).§REF§Burke et al. (2017).§REF§ This continued until the fall of Bronze Age Canaan." }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "vassalage", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " While Judea was technically a vassalage of the Seleucids in the earlier period, Jonathan and Simon assiduously played both sides of the Seleucid succession struggles against the middle, at times winning considerable practical autonomy. Circa 116 or 115 BCE, John Hyrcanus I broke away from the crippled Seleucid Empire and followed an independent policy, which lasted until his feuding descendants invited Pompey in." }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "nominal allegiance", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " While Judea was technically a vassalage of the Seleucids in the earlier period, Jonathan and Simon assiduously played both sides of the Seleucid succession struggles against the middle, at times winning considerable practical autonomy. Circa 116 or 115 BCE, John Hyrcanus I broke away from the crippled Seleucid Empire and followed an independent policy, which lasted until his feuding descendants invited Pompey in." }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 110, "name": "il_judea", "long_name": "Yehuda", "start_year": -141, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_suprapolity_relations", "supra_polity_relations": "none", "other_polity": null, "comment": null, "description": " While Judea was technically a vassalage of the Seleucids in the earlier period, Jonathan and Simon assiduously played both sides of the Seleucid succession struggles against the middle, at times winning considerable practical autonomy. Circa 116 or 115 BCE, John Hyrcanus I broke away from the crippled Seleucid Empire and followed an independent policy, which lasted until his feuding descendants invited Pompey in." } ] }