Polity Supracultural Entity List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Supracultural Entities.
GET /api/general/polity-supracultural-entities/?format=api&page=4
{ "count": 272, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-supracultural-entities/?format=api&page=5", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-supracultural-entities/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 152, "polity": { "id": 40, "name": "kh_angkor_1", "long_name": "Early Angkor", "start_year": 802, "end_year": 1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Indianized Southeast Asia", "comment": null, "description": " 'In contrast, the Hindu religion and its trappings offered the benefits of royal ideology tailor-made for nascent Southeast Asian kings, no political strings attached [as in Chinese-style imperial bureaucracy]. Here is what Indianization eventually brought to the region: the rich and complex Hindu religion, its mythology and cosmology, and its ritual (see p. 80); in particular, the cults of the gods Shiva and Vishnu, with whom local kings could identify. The Sanskrit language, the vehicle of Hinduism and one sect of Buddhism, and the source of many loan-works in early Khmer. The Indic (Brahmi) writing system, stone inscriptions and palm-leaf books. The Hindu temple complex, and an architectural tradition of brick and/or stone based upon Gupta prototypes. Statuary representing gods, kings and the Buddha. Cremation burial, at least of the upper stratum of society. Rectilineal town and city plans. Artificial water systems, including rectangular reservoirs (the srah and bray of Classic Khmer culture), as well as canals. Wheel-made pottery, which supplemented but did not supplant the local paddle-and-anvil ceramic tradition.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 63)§REF§" }, { "id": 153, "polity": { "id": 42, "name": "kh_angkor_3", "long_name": "Late Angkor", "start_year": 1220, "end_year": 1432 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Indianized Southeast Asia", "comment": null, "description": " 'In contrast, the Hindu religion and its trappings offered the benefits of royal ideology tailor-made for nascent Southeast Asian kings, no political strings attached [as in Chinese-style imperial bureaucracy]. Here is what Indianization eventually brought to the region: the rich and complex Hindu religion, its mythology and cosmology, and its ritual (see p. 80); in particular, the cults of the gods Shiva and Vishnu, with whom local kings could identify. The Sanskrit language, the vehicle of Hinduism and one sect of Buddhism, and the source of many loan-works in early Khmer. The Indic (Brahmi) writing system, stone inscriptions and palm-leaf books. The Hindu temple complex, and an architectural tradition of brick and/or stone based upon Gupta prototypes. Statuary representing gods, kings and the Buddha. Cremation burial, at least of the upper stratum of society. Rectilineal town and city plans. Artificial water systems, including rectangular reservoirs (the srah and bray of Classic Khmer culture), as well as canals. Wheel-made pottery, which supplemented but did not supplant the local paddle-and-anvil ceramic tradition.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 63)§REF§" }, { "id": 154, "polity": { "id": 43, "name": "kh_khmer_k", "long_name": "Khmer Kingdom", "start_year": 1432, "end_year": 1594 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Indianized Southeast Asia", "comment": null, "description": " 'In contrast, the Hindu religion and its trappings offered the benefits of royal ideology tailor-made for nascent Southeast Asian kings, no political strings attached [as in Chinese-style imperial bureaucracy]. Here is what Indianization eventually brought to the region: the rich and complex Hindu religion, its mythology and cosmology, and its ritual (see p. 80); in particular, the cults of the gods Shiva and Vishnu, with whom local kings could identify. The Sanskrit language, the vehicle of Hinduism and one sect of Buddhism, and the source of many loan-works in early Khmer. The Indic (Brahmi) writing system, stone inscriptions and palm-leaf books. The Hindu temple complex, and an architectural tradition of brick and/or stone based upon Gupta prototypes. Statuary representing gods, kings and the Buddha. Cremation burial, at least of the upper stratum of society. Rectilineal town and city plans. Artificial water systems, including rectangular reservoirs (the srah and bray of Classic Khmer culture), as well as canals. Wheel-made pottery, which supplemented but did not supplant the local paddle-and-anvil ceramic tradition.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 63)§REF§" }, { "id": 155, "polity": { "id": 39, "name": "kh_chenla", "long_name": "Chenla", "start_year": 550, "end_year": 825 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Indianized Southeast Asia", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 156, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Chinese cultural sphere", "comment": null, "description": " 'ANNAM. A Chinese term literally meaning “pacified south,” first ap- plied in the Six Dynasties period (third to sixth centuries CE) as part of titles given to Chinese officials in north Vietnam and to kings of Champa and Funan who declared themselves to be Chinese vassals.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p. 26)§REF§ The cultural material found in the region and the adoption of Indian script link the Funanese with India. This connection was over-emphasized by early researchers, but now it is thought to have been a symbiotic process where Indian traits were selectively adopted as it was required by the local population. §REF§(Vickery 1998)§REF§" }, { "id": 157, "polity": { "id": 37, "name": "kh_funan_1", "long_name": "Funan I", "start_year": 225, "end_year": 540 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Indian cultural sphere", "comment": null, "description": " 'ANNAM. A Chinese term literally meaning “pacified south,” first ap- plied in the Six Dynasties period (third to sixth centuries CE) as part of titles given to Chinese officials in north Vietnam and to kings of Champa and Funan who declared themselves to be Chinese vassals.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p. 26)§REF§ The cultural material found in the region and the adoption of Indian script link the Funanese with India. This connection was over-emphasized by early researchers, but now it is thought to have been a symbiotic process where Indian traits were selectively adopted as it was required by the local population. §REF§(Vickery 1998)§REF§" }, { "id": 158, "polity": { "id": 38, "name": "kh_funan_2", "long_name": "Funan II", "start_year": 540, "end_year": 640 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Chinese cultural sphere", "comment": null, "description": " 'ANNAM. A Chinese term literally meaning “pacified south,” first applied in the Six Dynasties period (third to sixth centuries CE) as part of titles given to Chinese officials in north Vietnam and to kings of Champa and Funan who declared themselves to be Chinese vassals.'§REF§(Miksic 2007, p. 26)§REF§" }, { "id": 159, "polity": { "id": 463, "name": "kz_andronovo", "long_name": "Andronovo", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Andronovan", "comment": null, "description": " \"Some communities specialized in copper mining, which was now carried out on an industrial scale, and it was Andronovo miners who began to exploit the tin ores of the Zeravshan range to enable them to produce standard tin bronze. The pastoral nature of the economy and the trade in bronze maintained a degree of social connectivity throughout the Kazakh steppe and adjacent regions.\"§REF§(Cunliffe 2015, 142) Cunliffe, Barry. 2015. By Steppe, Desert, and Ocean: The Birth of Eurasia. Oxford University Press. Oxford.§REF§" }, { "id": 160, "polity": { "id": 104, "name": "lb_phoenician_emp", "long_name": "Phoenician Empire", "start_year": -1200, "end_year": -332 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Phoenician", "comment": null, "description": " Also called Punic/Phoenician, it encompassed independent colonies across the Mediterranean—the most famous of which was the city of Carthage." }, { "id": 161, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Arabic", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 162, "polity": { "id": 432, "name": "ma_saadi_sultanate", "long_name": "Saadi Sultanate", "start_year": 1554, "end_year": 1659 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Islamic", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 163, "polity": { "id": 427, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_1", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno I", "start_year": -250, "end_year": 49 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Sahel Tell Culture", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 164, "polity": { "id": 428, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_2", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno II", "start_year": 50, "end_year": 399 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Sahel Tell Culture", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 165, "polity": { "id": 430, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_3", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno III", "start_year": 400, "end_year": 899 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Jenne Culture", "comment": null, "description": " Earlier coded as Sahel Tell Culture. In this more developed phase there presumably developed a more distinct local identity, so the supracultural entity will be a much smaller area. Al Sa'di's describes the territory of Jenne as \"from Lake Debo in the north to the Volta Bend in the south, and borders on the Bandiagara highlands to the east. It is not clear whether Jenne's territory was defined by political suzerainty, economic domination, or some other means entirely.\"§REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 6)§REF§" }, { "id": 166, "polity": { "id": 431, "name": "ml_jenne_jeno_4", "long_name": "Jenne-jeno IV", "start_year": 900, "end_year": 1300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Jenne Culture", "comment": null, "description": " Earlier coded as Sahel Tell Culture. In this more developed phase there presumably developed a more distinct local identity, so the supracultural entity will be a much smaller area. Al Sa'di's describes the territory of Jenne as \"from Lake Debo in the north to the Volta Bend in the south, and borders on the Bandiagara highlands to the east. It is not clear whether Jenne's territory was defined by political suzerainty, economic domination, or some other means entirely.\"§REF§(McIntosh and McIntosh 1981, 6)§REF§" }, { "id": 167, "polity": { "id": 229, "name": "ml_mali_emp", "long_name": "Mali Empire", "start_year": 1230, "end_year": 1410 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Mande", "comment": null, "description": " \"The dominant peoples of both the Ghana and Mali Empires ... were part of a huge, complex cultural group whose people, taken together, are known as Mande. \" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 19)§REF§" }, { "id": 168, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Mande", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 169, "polity": { "id": 242, "name": "ml_songhai_2", "long_name": "Songhai Empire - Askiya Dynasty", "start_year": 1493, "end_year": 1591 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Islamic", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 170, "polity": { "id": 267, "name": "mn_mongol_emp", "long_name": "Mongol Empire", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1270 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " Mongols; Steppe peoples; Steppe shamanism" }, { "id": 171, "polity": { "id": 443, "name": "mn_mongol_late", "long_name": "Late Mongols", "start_year": 1368, "end_year": 1690 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Mongols", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 172, "polity": { "id": 286, "name": "mn_uygur_khaganate", "long_name": "Uigur Khaganate", "start_year": 745, "end_year": 840 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Turko-Sogdian", "comment": null, "description": " \"Archeologists speak of a Turko-Sogdian cultural complex, one notable symbol of which was An Lushan (Rokhshan).\" §REF§(Findley 2005, 49)§REF§" }, { "id": 173, "polity": { "id": 438, "name": "mn_xianbei", "long_name": "Xianbei Confederation", "start_year": 100, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "proto-Mongolian Donghu", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Chinese chronicles attribute the Wuhuan and the Xianbei to a common cultural sphere - that of the proto-Mongolian Donghu - and inform us that the Xianbei customs and language were similar to those of the Wuhuan (Taskin 1984: 7, 329).\" §REF§(Kradin 2011, 197-198)§REF§" }, { "id": 174, "polity": { "id": 437, "name": "mn_hunnu_early", "long_name": "Early Xiongnu", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -300 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Early Nomadic", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 175, "polity": { "id": 444, "name": "mn_zungharian_emp", "long_name": "Zungharian Empire", "start_year": 1670, "end_year": 1757 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Oirats", "comment": null, "description": " \"By 1690 three different Oirat confederations, or states, had emerged. In Tibet the Khoshuds, with some Khoids and Torghuds, formed the khanate of Tibet under the descendants of Güüshi Khan (see UPPER MONGOLS). Strad- dling the Volga, the Torghuds, with some Dörböds and Khoshuds, formed the Kalmyk Khanate under Khoo-Örlög’s descendants. The Kalmyks numbered at their height 40,000-50,000 households. In the Oirat homeland of Zungharia, the ZÜNGHARS, an offshoot of the Dörböd also ruled by the Choros, displaced the Khoshud in 1676. The Zünghar principality included the Zünghars, Dör- böds, Khoshuds, and Khoids (with some attached Torghuds) and is said to have numbered 200,000 house- holds. From this time until 1771 the Oirats remained powerful players in Inner Asian politics.\" §REF§(Atwood 2004, 421)§REF§" }, { "id": 176, "polity": { "id": 224, "name": "mr_wagadu_3", "long_name": "Later Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 1078, "end_year": 1203 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Mande", "comment": null, "description": " Soninke are Mande peoples." }, { "id": 177, "polity": { "id": 216, "name": "mr_wagadu_2", "long_name": "Middle Wagadu Empire", "start_year": 700, "end_year": 1077 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Mande", "comment": null, "description": " \"The dominant people of ancient Ghana were the Soninke.\"§REF§(Conrad 2010, 23)§REF§ \"The dominant peoples of both the Ghana and Mali Empires ... were part of a huge, complex cultural group whose people, taken together, are known as Mande. \" §REF§(Conrad 2010, 19)§REF§ Soninke are Mande peoples." }, { "id": 178, "polity": { "id": 528, "name": "mx_monte_alban_3_a", "long_name": "Monte Alban III", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Zapotec", "comment": null, "description": " The valley became much more integrated during this period, with a consistent “Zapotec ceramic tradition”, Monte Albán stone monument styles and a wider distribution of settlements in the piedmont zone away from Monte Albán.§REF§Blanton, R. E., et al. (1982). The Prehispanic Settlement Patterns of the Central and Southern Parts of the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico, Regents of the University of Michigan, the Museum of Anthropology, p85, 88-9§REF§" }, { "id": 179, "polity": { "id": 10, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_5", "long_name": "Late Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -400, "end_year": -101 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " Central Highland Mesoamerican Late-Terminal Formative. Including the rest of the Basin of Mexico, the Puebla-Tlaxcalla Valley, Morelos, the Toluca Valley, and parts of Southern Puebla." }, { "id": 180, "polity": { "id": 9, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_4", "long_name": "Middle Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -800, "end_year": -401 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " Central Highland Mesoamerican Early-Middle Formative ." }, { "id": 181, "polity": { "id": 11, "name": "mx_basin_of_mexico_6", "long_name": "Terminal Formative Basin of Mexico", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 99 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Central Highland Mesoamerican Late-Terminal Formative", "comment": null, "description": " Including the rest of the Basin of Mexico, the Puebla-Tlaxcalla Valley, Morelos, the Toluca Valley, and parts of Southern Puebla." }, { "id": 182, "polity": { "id": 524, "name": "mx_rosario", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Rosario", "start_year": -700, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Middle Formative", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 183, "polity": { "id": 523, "name": "mx_san_jose", "long_name": "Oaxaca - San Jose", "start_year": -1150, "end_year": -700 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Early Formative", "comment": null, "description": " The ceramic complex in the Valley of Oaxaca at this time resembled the ceramics of contemporary societies in Mesoamerica, including the Tlatilco in the Valley of Mexico Las Bocas in south-western Puebla, Chiapa de Corzo I in Chiapas, and the San Lorenzo phase in southern Veracruz§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p50§REF§. These societies traded goods and ideas, but would not have been integrated polities.§REF§Marcus, J. and K. V. Flannery (1996). Zapotec civilization: How urban society evolved in Mexico's Oaxaca Valley, Thames and Hudson London, p119-20§REF§" }, { "id": 184, "polity": { "id": 522, "name": "mx_tierras_largas", "long_name": "Oaxaca - Tierras Largas", "start_year": -1400, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Early Formative", "comment": null, "description": " The groups occupying the Valley of Oaxaca at this time were relatively simple, settled communities which shared a widespread ceramic complex (the Tierras Largas pottery). There are no distinct cultural differences across the region at this time and the supracultural entity has therefore been coded as the general phase name for sites of this period.§REF§Flannery, K. V. and J. Marcus (1983). \"The Cloud People.\" New York, p43§REF§" }, { "id": 185, "polity": { "id": 116, "name": "no_norway_k_2", "long_name": "Kingdom of Norway II", "start_year": 1262, "end_year": 1396 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Latin Christendom", "comment": null, "description": " Icelandic cultural forms were derived from and now became politically part of the greater Scandinavian realm in the North Atlantic controlled by the Norwegian kings: 'The realm of the king of Norway, when Iceland became a part of it, was centred on the North Atlantic. It stretched from the west coast of Greenland to the Barents Sea in the north, and south to Göteborg and the Orkneys [...]. Purely in terms of distance, Iceland was not far from the middle of this domain; it was within a week's travel of the main centres, the royal court at Bergen and the archiepiscoal sea at Trondheim. Just over two centuries later, the capital of the state was the city of Copenhagen on the Sound, and Iceland was at the westernmost point of the kingdom. It was King Haakon (1299-1319), son of Magnus, who turned the thrust of the state to the south and east. He moved his court from Bergen to Oslo, and arranged a marriage between his daughter Ingeborg and the brother of the Swedish king, when she was one year old. Their son, Magnus, inherited the thrones of Sweden and Norway in 1319, at the age of three. Norway as an autonomous kingdom had thus practically ceased to exist. The mid-14th century also saw the Balck Death sweep through Scandinavia. The disease was especially virulent in Norway, where as many as two-third of the population may have died in successive epidemics. In the period 1376-80 the boy king Olaf, son of Hakon, inherited the crowns of Denmark and Norway. Thus Iceland became subject to the Danish throne, a relationship that was not finally broken off until 1944. Olaf was also of the Swedish royal house (which ruled Finland too). It is easy to imagne the idea of a unified Nordic realm forming in the mind of Queen Margarethe, mother of the child king. But in 1387 Olaf suddenly died, aged 17. But Margarethe did not give up her plans. She contrived to have herself elected regent in all the Nordic kingdoms, and to have her six-year-old foster-son nominaated heir to all the thrones. In 1397 an attempt was made in the Swesih city of Karlmar to establish a permanent union of the states.' §REF§Karlsson, Gunnar 2000. \"A Brief History of Iceland\", 22p§REF§ Norway monopolized trade with Iceland due to competition from the Hansa in other regions: 'During years of suffering resulting from these recurring calamities some aid was derived from Norwegian trade with Iceland which was plied quite energetically, especially during the first half of the fourteenth century, since the Hanseatic League had closed all other avenues to Norwegian merchants. It had already been noted that King Haakon Magnusson made trade with Iceland a Norwegian monopoly. [...] In 1302 King Haakon made the regulation that the Hansa merchants should not trade north of Bergen, or carry on commerce with Iceland or any of the Norwegian dependencies, a stipulation which was repeated in 1306. This trade was retained by the government for the benefit of the crown.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 243§REF§ These cultural and commercial contacts suffered under the impact of the plague in mainland Scandinavia: 'This development of a new important line of export proved a valuable stimulus for commerce, and must have increased also the volume of Icelandic imports, as is shown by the lively intercourse between Norway and Iceland at that time. [...] But this very encouraging outlook in commercial affairs was suddenly destroyed by the Black Death, which in 1349 appeared in Norway and in a short time carried away one-third of the entire population of the kingdom. [...] the expeditions ot Greenland ceased almost completely, and the trade with Iceland and other dependencies was greatly reduced. [...] During the second half of the fourteenth century it appears from the annals fewer ships came to Iceland than formerly. Not till in 1387 is it again recorded that as many as eleven ships arrived in a single year. For Iceland, which was suffering from the effects of the great calamities which had lately befallen the country, this falling off of commerce was a serious misfortune.' §REF§Gjerset, Knut [1924]. \"History of Iceland\", 244p§REF§ But the adoption of Christianity in the Commonwealth period also made Iceland part of the greater cultural sphere of Latin Christendom. §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§" }, { "id": 186, "polity": { "id": 78, "name": "pe_cuzco_2", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate I", "start_year": 200, "end_year": 499 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Lake Titicaca cultural sphere", "comment": null, "description": " \"In summary, prior to the Middle Horizon, the cultures of the Cuzco Valley appear to have participated in the sociocultural interaction sphere centered at Lake Titicaca to the south.\" §REF§(McEwan 2006b, 88)§REF§" }, { "id": 187, "polity": { "id": 79, "name": "pe_cuzco_3", "long_name": "Cuzco - Early Intermediate II", "start_year": 500, "end_year": 649 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Lake Titicaca cultural sphere", "comment": null, "description": " \"During the Early Horizon and Early Intermediate Period (ca. 1500 B.C.-A.D. 600), Cuzco was originally in the orbit of the Lake Titicaca cultural sphere, seat of the later Middle Horizon Tiwanaku Empire.\" §REF§(McEwan 2006, 65)§REF§" }, { "id": 188, "polity": { "id": 81, "name": "pe_cuzco_5", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate I", "start_year": 1000, "end_year": 1250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Wari cultural sphere", "comment": null, "description": " The polity in the Lucre Basin (Pinagua) seems to have been in the Wari cultural sphere: \"A few centuries later, circa AD 1300, a second building phase was initiated at Choquepukio, resulting in the construction of additional niched halls. Up to this point, the predominant postcollapse cultural influence had been derived from the Wari. The second building phase seems to represent the arrival of an elite group from the old Tiwanaku sphere of influence.\" §REF§(McEwan 2006b, 95)§REF§" }, { "id": 189, "polity": { "id": 82, "name": "pe_cuzco_6", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Intermediate II", "start_year": 1250, "end_year": 1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Lake Titicaca cultural sphere", "comment": null, "description": " At least for the Lucre Basin polity. \"Up to this point, the predominant postcollapse cultural influence had been derived from the Wari. The second building phase seems to represent the arrival of an elite group from the old Tiwanaku sphere of influence.\" §REF§(McEwan 2006b, 95)§REF§ The Killke polity could also be linked to Lake Titicaca, since they appear to have been linguistically and genetically related. §REF§(D'Altroy 2014, 85)§REF§" }, { "id": 190, "polity": { "id": 77, "name": "pe_cuzco_1", "long_name": "Cuzco - Late Formative", "start_year": -500, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Lake Titicaca cultural sphere", "comment": null, "description": " \"These kinds of communities, and the social process that they were experiencing, seem quite similar to what was taking place on the Altiplano.\" §REF§(Quilter 2013, 160)§REF§" }, { "id": 191, "polity": { "id": 80, "name": "pe_wari_emp", "long_name": "Wari Empire", "start_year": 650, "end_year": 999 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Middle Horizon", "comment": null, "description": " \"“Middle Horizon” is a period in Peruvian prehistory (Figure 37.1), but cultural dynamics embraced an area much larger than Peru [...]. The Middle Horizon was the time when leadership in complexity within the Central Andes shifted from northern Peru and the Pacific coast - especially the spectacular Moche culture [...] - to south central Peru, northwestern Bolivia and the Andean highlands [...]. A new religious art spread through the Andes, composed of three primary supernatural images.\"§REF§(Isbell in Silverman and Isbell 2008, 731-73)§REF§" }, { "id": 192, "polity": { "id": 445, "name": "pg_orokaiva_pre_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Pre-Colonial", "start_year": 1734, "end_year": 1883 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Melanesia", "comment": null, "description": " The Orokaiva population is Melanesian, but Micronesian and Polynesian groups are present around the main island: 'Papua New Guinea’s social composition is extremely complex, although most people are classified as Melanesian. Very small minorities of Micronesian and Polynesian societies can be found on some of the outlying islands and atolls, and as in the eastern and northern Pacific these people have political structures headed by chiefs, a system seldom found among the Melanesian peoples of Papua New Guinea. The non-Melanesian portion of the population, including expatriates and immigrants, is small. At independence in 1975 the expatriate community of about 50,000 was predominantly Australian, with perhaps 10,000 people of Chinese origin whose ancestors had arrived before World War I.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea</a>§REF§ Some attempts at colonization predate the colonial period proper: 'Malay and possibly Chinese traders took spoils and some slaves from western New Guinea for hundreds of years. The first European visitor may have been Jorge de Meneses, who possibly landed on the island in 1526-27 while en route to the Moluccas. The first European attempt at colonization was made in 1793 by Lieut. John Hayes, a British naval officer, near Manokwari, now in Papua province, Indonesia. It was the Dutch, however, who claimed the western half of the island as part of the Dutch East Indies in 1828; their control remained nominal until 1898, when their first permanent administrative posts were set up at Fakfak and Manokwari.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History</a>§REF§ There may have been some contact with the Americas as well: 'The intensity and length of time of human occupation of the Highlands are evidenced by the extent of man-made landscapes in the region. Those discoveries are made even more interesting by the fact that the sweet potato, the present staple crop of the region, seems not to have arrived in the area from the Americas until 300 or 400 years ago. It is presumed that taro was the earlier staple, as it still is in some isolated Highlands basins such as that at Telefomin. The ancestors of the Polynesian peoples who migrated to the eastern Pacific passed through the Bismarck Archipelago in the past 5,000 years.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea/History</a>§REF§ We have opted for Melanesia as the most suitable entity. Wikipedia gives the geographical extent of Melanesia as 940.000 km squared §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanesien\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanesien</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 193, "polity": { "id": 446, "name": "pg_orokaiva_colonial", "long_name": "Orokaiva - Colonial", "start_year": 1884, "end_year": 1942 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Melanesia", "comment": null, "description": " The Orokaiva population is Melanesian, but Micronesian and Polynesian groups are present around the main island: 'Papua New Guinea’s social composition is extremely complex, although most people are classified as Melanesian. Very small minorities of Micronesian and Polynesian societies can be found on some of the outlying islands and atolls, and as in the eastern and northern Pacific these people have political structures headed by chiefs, a system seldom found among the Melanesian peoples of Papua New Guinea. The non-Melanesian portion of the population, including expatriates and immigrants, is small. At independence in 1975 the expatriate community of about 50,000 was predominantly Australian, with perhaps 10,000 people of Chinese origin whose ancestors had arrived before World War I.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea</a>§REF§ During the colonial period, cross-cultural encounters with Europeans and East Asians emerged and intensified: 'In response to Australian pressure, the British government annexed Papua in 1888. Gold was discovered shortly thereafter, resulting in a major movement of prospectors and miners to what was then the Northern District. Relations with the Papuans were bad from the start, and there were numerous killings on both sides. The Protectorate of British New Guinea became Australian territory by the passing of the Papua Act of 1905 by the Commonwealth Government of Australia. The new administration adopted a policy of peaceful penetration, and many measures of social and economic national development were introduced. Local control was in the hands of village constables, paid servants of the Crown. Chosen by European officers, they were intermediaries between the government and the people. In 1951 an eruption occurred on Mount Lamington, completely devastating a large part of the area occupied by the Orokaiva.' §REF§Latham, Christopher S.: eHRAf Cultural Summary for the Orokaiva§REF§ We have opted for Melanesia as the most suitable entity. Wikipedia gives the geographical extent of Melanesia as 940.000 km squared §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanesien\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanesien</a>§REF§." }, { "id": 194, "polity": { "id": 119, "name": "pk_kachi_ca", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Chalcolithic", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -3200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "not applicable", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 195, "polity": { "id": 120, "name": "pk_kachi_pre_urban", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Pre-Urban Period", "start_year": -3200, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Indus Civilisation", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 196, "polity": { "id": 124, "name": "pk_kachi_proto_historic", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Proto-Historic Period", "start_year": -1300, "end_year": -500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "UND", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " Unclear. It is seems very likely that Pirak was once part of a larger assemblage of culturally similar settlements, but, perhaps due to the erosive effects of nearby rivers, only Pirak remains§REF§(Jarrige & Enault 1976, 45-46) Jean-Francois Jarrige and Jean-Francois Enault. 1976. Fouilles de Pirak. <i>Arts Asiatiques</i> 32: 29-70.§REF§" }, { "id": 197, "polity": { "id": 121, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_1", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period I", "start_year": -2500, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Indus Civilisation", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 198, "polity": { "id": 122, "name": "pk_kachi_urban_2", "long_name": "Kachi Plain - Urban Period II", "start_year": -2100, "end_year": -1800 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Indus Civilisation", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 199, "polity": { "id": 194, "name": "ru_sakha_early", "long_name": "Sakha - Early", "start_year": 1400, "end_year": 1632 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Siberia", "comment": null, "description": " The Sakha may be of Turkic origin, but mingled culturally with other local tribes: 'The Sakha are thought to be an admixture of migrants from the Lake Baikal region with the aborigines of the Lena-probably mostly Evenk (Evenki), who have contributed much to their culture. Other evidence, however, points to a southern ancestry related to the Turkic-speaking tribes of the steppe and the Altai Mountains. The early history of the Sakha is little known, though epic tales date from the 10th century. In the 17th century they had peacefully assimilated with other northern peoples and consisted of 80 independent tribes, subdivided into clans.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Sakha-people\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Sakha-people</a>§REF§ 'Yakutia is a 3,100,000-square-kilometer territory (over four times the size of Texas), in eastern Siberia (the Soviet Far East). Located at approximately 56 to 71 degree north latitude and 107 to 152 east longitude, it is bounded by Chukotka to the northeast, Buriatia in the south, and the Evenk region to the west. Its northern coast stretches far above the Arctic Circle, along the East Siberian Sea, whereas its southern rim includes the Stanovoi Mountains and the Aldan plateau. Its most majestic river, the Lena, flows north along cavernous cliffs, into a long valley, and past the capital, Yakutsk. Other key river systems, where major towns have developed, include the Aldan, Viliui, and Kolyma. About 700,000 named rivers and streams cross Yakutia, which has some agricultural land, but is primarily nonagricultural taiga, with vast resources of gold, other minerals, gas, and oil. Tundra rims the north, except for forests along the rivers. Notorious for extremes of cold, long winters, and hot, dry summers, Yakutia has two locations that residents claim to be the \"coldest on earth\": Verkhoiansk and Oimiakon, where temperatures have dipped to -79 degrees Celsius. More typical are winters of 0 to -40 degrees Celsius and summers of 10 to 30 degrees Celsius.' §REF§Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut§REF§ Wikipedia provides 13,100,000 km squared as the total extent of Siberia §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia</a>§REF§. We have opted for Siberia rather than Sakha as the supra-cultural entity in question, hence the large number. This remains open to re-evaluation." }, { "id": 200, "polity": { "id": 195, "name": "ru_sakha_late", "long_name": "Sakha - Late", "start_year": 1632, "end_year": 1900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Siberia", "comment": null, "description": " The Sakha may be of Turkic origin, but mingled culturally with other local tribes: 'The Sakha are thought to be an admixture of migrants from the Lake Baikal region with the aborigines of the Lena-probably mostly Evenk (Evenki), who have contributed much to their culture. Other evidence, however, points to a southern ancestry related to the Turkic-speaking tribes of the steppe and the Altai Mountains. The early history of the Sakha is little known, though epic tales date from the 10th century. In the 17th century they had peacefully assimilated with other northern peoples and consisted of 80 independent tribes, subdivided into clans.' §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.britannica.com/topic/Sakha-people\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.britannica.com/topic/Sakha-people</a>§REF§ During the Czarist period, cross-cultural exchanges with Russian settlers and administrators were of primary importance: 'By 1620 a report had reached Tobolsk from the Mangaseya Cossacks of the Great (Lena) River and the Lena Yakut. In 1631 they descended by the Viliui River, a tributary of the Lena, to the Lena River and imposed tribute on the adjacent Yakut. In 1632 a party of Cossacks under the command of the Boyar’s son, Shakov, took tribute in sables from a clan of Viliui horse-breeding Yakut. The Viliui River farther up from its mouth was occupied by Tungus only. The northern boundary of the distribution of the Yakut at that time was the mouth of the Viliui. The whole Lena Valley from the mouth of the Viliui River to the south, at a distance of about 500 kilometers (or 710 miles) was occupied by Yakut. In their possession were also all the Lena islands of that region, rich in pasture lands. There is no definite information as to how far inland they penetrated at that period. We may admit, however, that the Yakut, being horse and cattle breeders, were hardly inclined to move into the dense forests far from the majority of their tribesmen, i.e., far from the Lena Valley. In the beginning of the seventeenth century the Yakut abode on the western banks of the Lena must have been the territory of the two present uluses of Yakutsk District, Namskij and Western Kangalassky. There, according to Yakut traditions, was the first place of refuge of their mythical forefather, the “Tatar” Elliei. From there a part of his nearest descendants could also have emigrated over the Lena islands to the eastern banks of the Lena River, where excellent pastures are as abundant as on the western banks.' §REF§Jochelson, Waldemar 1933. “Yakut\", 220§REF§ 'By 1642 the Lena valley was under tribute to the czar; peace was won only after a long siege of a formidable Yakut fortress. By 1700 the fort settlement of Yakutsk (founded 1632) was a bustling Russian administrative, commercial, and religious center and a launching point for further exploration into Kamchatka and Chukotka. Some Yakut moved northeast into territories they had previously not dominated, further assimilating the Evenk and Yukagir. Most Yakut, however, remained in the central meadowlands, sometimes assimilating Russians. Yakut leaders cooperated with Russian commanders and governors, becoming active in trade, fur-tax collection, transport, and the postal system. Fighting among Yakut communities decreased, although horse rustling and occasional anti-Russian violence continued. For example, a Yakut Robin Hood named Manchari led a band that stole from the rich (usually Russians) to give to the poor (usually Yakut) in the nineteenth century. Russian Orthodox priests spread through Yakutia, but their followers were mainly in the major towns. By 1900 a literate Yakut intelligentsia, influenced both by Russian merchants and political exiles, formed a party called the Yakut Union. Yakut revolutionaries such as Oiunskii and Ammosov led the Revolution and civil war in Yakutia, along with Bolsheviks such as the Georgian Ordzhonikidze.' §REF§Balzer, Marjorie Mandelstam and Skoggard, Ian: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Yakut§REF§ Wikipedia provides 13,100,000 km squared as the total extent of Siberia §REF§<a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia</a>§REF§. We have opted for Siberia rather than Yakutia as the supra-cultural entity in question, hence the large number. This remains open to re-evaluation." }, { "id": 201, "polity": { "id": 521, "name": "eg_kushite", "long_name": "Egypt - Kushite Period", "start_year": -747, "end_year": -656 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Nubia", "comment": null, "description": null } ] }