Polity Supracultural Entity List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Supracultural Entities.
GET /api/general/polity-supracultural-entities/?format=api&page=3
{ "count": 272, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-supracultural-entities/?format=api&page=4", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-supracultural-entities/?format=api&page=2", "results": [ { "id": 102, "polity": { "id": 499, "name": "ir_elam_5", "long_name": "Elam - Kidinuid Period", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Mesopotamia", "comment": null, "description": " Elam was in Iran on the borderland of Mesopotamia. In this period it became embroiled in Mesopotamian politics and became part of the supraculture of Mesopotamia. At the same time Elamite kings held the title of king of Anshan and Susa. Anshan was the highland area to the east and much of this population was Iranian. §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication.§REF§" }, { "id": 103, "polity": { "id": 499, "name": "ir_elam_5", "long_name": "Elam - Kidinuid Period", "start_year": -1500, "end_year": -1400 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Iran", "comment": null, "description": " Elam was in Iran on the borderland of Mesopotamia. In this period it became embroiled in Mesopotamian politics and became part of the supraculture of Mesopotamia. At the same time Elamite kings held the title of king of Anshan and Susa. Anshan was the highland area to the east and much of this population was Iranian. §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication.§REF§" }, { "id": 104, "polity": { "id": 500, "name": "ir_elam_6", "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period", "start_year": -1399, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Mesopotamia", "comment": null, "description": " Elam was in Iran on the borderland of Mesopotamia. In this period it became embroiled in Mesopotamian politics and became part of the supraculture of Mesopotamia. At the same time Elamite kings held the title of king of Anshan and Susa. Anshan was the highland area to the east and much of this population was Iranian. §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication.§REF§" }, { "id": 105, "polity": { "id": 500, "name": "ir_elam_6", "long_name": "Elam - Igihalkid Period", "start_year": -1399, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Iran", "comment": null, "description": " Elam was in Iran on the borderland of Mesopotamia. In this period it became embroiled in Mesopotamian politics and became part of the supraculture of Mesopotamia. At the same time Elamite kings held the title of king of Anshan and Susa. Anshan was the highland area to the east and much of this population was Iranian. §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication.§REF§" }, { "id": 106, "polity": { "id": 501, "name": "ir_elam_7", "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period", "start_year": -1199, "end_year": -1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Mesopotamia", "comment": null, "description": " Elam was in Iran on the borderland of Mesopotamia. In this period it became embroiled in Mesopotamian politics and became part of the supraculture of Mesopotamia. At the same time Elamite kings held the title of king of Anshan and Susa. Anshan was the highland area to the east and much of this population was Iranian. §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication.§REF§" }, { "id": 107, "polity": { "id": 501, "name": "ir_elam_7", "long_name": "Elam - Shutrukid Period", "start_year": -1199, "end_year": -1100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Iran", "comment": null, "description": " Elam was in Iran on the borderland of Mesopotamia. In this period it became embroiled in Mesopotamian politics and became part of the supraculture of Mesopotamia. At the same time Elamite kings held the title of king of Anshan and Susa. Anshan was the highland area to the east and much of this population was Iranian. §REF§Carter, E. and Stolpher, M.W. 1984. Elam: Surveys of Political History and Archaeology. London: University of California Publication.§REF§" }, { "id": 108, "polity": { "id": 125, "name": "ir_parthian_emp_1", "long_name": "Parthian Empire I", "start_year": -247, "end_year": 40 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Greco-Bactrian", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Chinese records revealed that the Parthians shared many cultural characteristics with the petty kingdoms in the Sogdiana, Bactria, and Ferghana regions.\"§REF§(Tao 2007) Tao, Wang in Josef in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§ The records \"suggests that the oases between the Pamirs and the Amu-darya were occupied by people who were culturally related to each other, probably all of Iranian stock.\" \"For example, the Tochari kingdom in the Amu-darya was closely associated with the Parthians in terms of products, customs, trade and currency; the Samarkand was similar to the Tochari, the Bactria to the Sogdiana, the Ferghana to both the Tochari and the Parthians.\"§REF§(Tao 2007) Tao, Wang in Josef in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 109, "polity": { "id": 483, "name": "iq_parthian_emp_2", "long_name": "Parthian Empire II", "start_year": 41, "end_year": 226 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Greco-Bactrian", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Chinese records revealed that the Parthians shared many cultural characteristics with the petty kingdoms in the Sogdiana, Bactria, and Ferghana regions.\"§REF§(Tao 2007) Tao, Wang in Josef in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§ The records \"suggests that the oases between the Pamirs and the Amu-darya were occupied by people who were culturally related to each other, probably all of Iranian stock.\" \"For example, the Tochari kingdom in the Amu-darya was closely associated with the Parthians in terms of products, customs, trade and currency; the Samarkand was similar to the Tochari, the Bactria to the Sogdiana, the Ferghana to both the Tochari and the Parthians.\"§REF§(Tao 2007) Tao, Wang in Josef in Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh and Stewart, Sarah eds. 2007. The Age of the Parthians. I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 110, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Turco-Mongol", "comment": null, "description": " \"chancellery correspondence after 1588 pointed to the Safavid dynasty as the custodian of a complex heritage, which on the one hand recognized ecumenicalism and on the other claimed exclusive divine absolutism and soteriological superiority. This Universalist emphasis was in part inherited from the Turco-Mongol world of the Fourteen and Fifteenth centuries, but we also cannot dismiss the importance of those Universalist empires and world conquerors of the Archaemenian and Sasanian eras represented so faithfully as exemplars in Perso-Islamic literature and art.\"§REF§(Mitchell 2009, 202) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ \"The 'Shi'fication' and Iraniation' of the Safavid Empire over a period of a hundred years prepared the landscape for a regional split into distinct Sunni Ottoman and Shi'i Safavid dominions.\" §REF§Babayan, Kathryn. “The Safavids in Iranian History (1501-1722)” in The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, edited by Touraj Daryaee, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012, p.290.§REF§" }, { "id": 111, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Perso-Islamic", "comment": null, "description": " \"chancellery correspondence after 1588 pointed to the Safavid dynasty as the custodian of a complex heritage, which on the one hand recognized ecumenicalism and on the other claimed exclusive divine absolutism and soteriological superiority. This Universalist emphasis was in part inherited from the Turco-Mongol world of the Fourteen and Fifteenth centuries, but we also cannot dismiss the importance of those Universalist empires and world conquerors of the Archaemenian and Sasanian eras represented so faithfully as exemplars in Perso-Islamic literature and art.\"§REF§(Mitchell 2009, 202) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ \"The 'Shi'fication' and Iraniation' of the Safavid Empire over a period of a hundred years prepared the landscape for a regional split into distinct Sunni Ottoman and Shi'i Safavid dominions.\" §REF§Babayan, Kathryn. “The Safavids in Iranian History (1501-1722)” in The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, edited by Touraj Daryaee, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012, p.290.§REF§" }, { "id": 112, "polity": { "id": 374, "name": "ir_safavid_emp", "long_name": "Safavid Empire", "start_year": 1501, "end_year": 1722 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Shia-Islamic", "comment": null, "description": " \"chancellery correspondence after 1588 pointed to the Safavid dynasty as the custodian of a complex heritage, which on the one hand recognized ecumenicalism and on the other claimed exclusive divine absolutism and soteriological superiority. This Universalist emphasis was in part inherited from the Turco-Mongol world of the Fourteen and Fifteenth centuries, but we also cannot dismiss the importance of those Universalist empires and world conquerors of the Archaemenian and Sasanian eras represented so faithfully as exemplars in Perso-Islamic literature and art.\"§REF§(Mitchell 2009, 202) Mitchell, Colin P. 2009. Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran, The: Power, Religion and Rhetoric. I.B. Tauris. London.§REF§ \"The 'Shi'fication' and Iraniation' of the Safavid Empire over a period of a hundred years prepared the landscape for a regional split into distinct Sunni Ottoman and Shi'i Safavid dominions.\" §REF§Babayan, Kathryn. “The Safavids in Iranian History (1501-1722)” in The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History, edited by Touraj Daryaee, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012, p.290.§REF§" }, { "id": 113, "polity": { "id": 128, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_1", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire I", "start_year": 205, "end_year": 487 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 114, "polity": { "id": 130, "name": "ir_sassanid_emp_2", "long_name": "Sasanid Empire II", "start_year": 488, "end_year": 642 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Persian", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 115, "polity": { "id": 108, "name": "ir_seleucid_emp", "long_name": "Seleucid Empire", "start_year": -312, "end_year": -63 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Greek", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 116, "polity": { "id": 364, "name": "ir_seljuk_sultanate", "long_name": "Seljuk Sultanate", "start_year": 1037, "end_year": 1157 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Perso-Islamic", "comment": null, "description": " Perso-Islamic: \"\"Steppe traditions explain aspects of the internal functioning of the Seljuk state: the status of the Seljuk family; the bipartite division of the empire; the nature of the succession arrangements. However, with the exception of tughra, much of the public symbolism that the Seljuk rulers drew on was not Turkic, but rather derived from the Perso-Islamic tradition of rule ... For most of the Seljuk's subjects, this Perso-Islamic tradition would have been a more meaningful sign of their rulers' legitimacy than any steppe tradition.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 134-135) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 117, "polity": { "id": 497, "name": "ir_elam_3", "long_name": "Elam - Early Sukkalmah", "start_year": -1900, "end_year": -1701 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Amorite world", "comment": null, "description": " : \"The Mari Age is undoubtedly a period for which it is possible to reconstruct the network of political relations of the 'Amorite' world ... which can be considered as a cultural and linguistic continuum that spread from Syria to Elam with an unprecedented intensity and breadth of interaction. Akkadian became the preferred language for diplomatic relations and the administration of all the palaces of the area, even where the main spoken language was Hurrian or Amorite. Messengers and ambassadors had to travel extensively to deliver information, requests, gifts, and to prepare the route for merchants or troops.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 229) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 118, "polity": { "id": 493, "name": "ir_susa_2", "long_name": "Susa II", "start_year": -3800, "end_year": -3100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Sumerian", "comment": null, "description": " \"very clear Mesopotamian character of the ceramic industry at this time.\"§REF§(Potts 2016, 56) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 119, "polity": { "id": 494, "name": "ir_susa_3", "long_name": "Susa III", "start_year": -3100, "end_year": -2675 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Sumerian", "comment": null, "description": " Potts (2016) says that the link between what has been called \"Proto-Elamite\" and Elamite culture does not exist, \"Proto-Elamite\" is a misnomer. Writing system of the succeeding period was derived from proto-cuneiform Susa II/Uruk IV.§REF§(Potts 2016, 76) Potts, D T. 2016. The Archaeology of Elam Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State. 2nd Edition. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.§REF§" }, { "id": 120, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Scandinavia", "comment": null, "description": " The settlers maintained cultural ties with Scandinavia and the British Isles: 'Iceland was a new society, however Icelandic culture perpetuated many of the cultural standards from Scandinavia, especially Norway. While both Norse and Celtic peoples contributed to the founding population they had unequal impacts on the culture of Iceland. Celts appear to have been incorporated into Norse households and appear to have little lasting impact on the cultural and institutional developments that were predominantly Scandinavian in origin. The first settlers claimed lands and established dispersed farmsteads. Many of the economic practices were unsuitable to the fragile Icelandic environment and resulted in deforestation and land erosion, especially in the uplands. As population grew, settlement expanded, and new farmsteads were divided from previous land claims. In 930 A.D. the General Assembly (ALÞINGI) was founded, providing an institution integrating the entire island. The same assembly accepted Christianity as the religion of the land in 1000 A.D. The thirteenth century was a period of escalating conflict (STURLUNGAÖLD) chieftains attempted to exert control beyond their local regions. The system of autonomous chieftains ended after 1262 A.D. when Iceland came under Norwegian rule. The Viking Age expansion into the North Atlantic did not end at Iceland. In the late tenth century Eirík the Red led a major venture to colonize Greenland and his son, Leifur Eiríksson, has been credited with the European discovery of North America. Early Icelanders maintained close ties with Scandinavia and the British Isles. Continental trading and raiding expeditions were common activities for those with the means to take a share in a boat. Their travels sometimes took them as far as Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ Icelanders also maintained trading relations with Europe: 'The early Icelanders maintained commercial contacts with Europe and obtained goods from Scandinavia, England, the Norse Orkneys, and the Netherlands. The majority of trade, however, was with Norway, both for Norwegian goods and for foreign goods obtained by Norwegian merchants. The limited resources, especially in terms of raw materials for manufactured goods, made Iceland highly dependent on imported goods. Even before the decline and cessation of grain production in Iceland it is unlikely that Iceland ever produced enough cereals to meet its own needs. Of special significance in a feasting economy, grain and malt were essential to ale production. After Christianization imported wine also become essential for the celebration of communion. Many higher quality iron products, for example weapons and armor, could not be produced from local sources and were imported, mostly in finished forms. Other metals - brass, tin, lead, gold, silver, and bronze - were unavailable locally as well as steatite for utensils and stone suitable for making whetstones. Iceland had a limited number of exportable resources and goods. Homespun woolen cloth was the principal export and was a common standard of value in local exchanges. Sulfur, unavailable from any continental source, was a valuable commodity. Falcons and various animal skins - sheep, fox, and cat - were marketable as were cheese and possibly butter. Fish, the current mainstay of the Icelandic economy was not a significant export item in early Iceland.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ After the conversion to Christianity, Iceland and Scandinavia became part of the greater cultural sphere of Latin Christendom. §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§" }, { "id": 121, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Norden", "comment": null, "description": " The settlers maintained cultural ties with Scandinavia and the British Isles: 'Iceland was a new society, however Icelandic culture perpetuated many of the cultural standards from Scandinavia, especially Norway. While both Norse and Celtic peoples contributed to the founding population they had unequal impacts on the culture of Iceland. Celts appear to have been incorporated into Norse households and appear to have little lasting impact on the cultural and institutional developments that were predominantly Scandinavian in origin. The first settlers claimed lands and established dispersed farmsteads. Many of the economic practices were unsuitable to the fragile Icelandic environment and resulted in deforestation and land erosion, especially in the uplands. As population grew, settlement expanded, and new farmsteads were divided from previous land claims. In 930 A.D. the General Assembly (ALÞINGI) was founded, providing an institution integrating the entire island. The same assembly accepted Christianity as the religion of the land in 1000 A.D. The thirteenth century was a period of escalating conflict (STURLUNGAÖLD) chieftains attempted to exert control beyond their local regions. The system of autonomous chieftains ended after 1262 A.D. when Iceland came under Norwegian rule. The Viking Age expansion into the North Atlantic did not end at Iceland. In the late tenth century Eirík the Red led a major venture to colonize Greenland and his son, Leifur Eiríksson, has been credited with the European discovery of North America. Early Icelanders maintained close ties with Scandinavia and the British Isles. Continental trading and raiding expeditions were common activities for those with the means to take a share in a boat. Their travels sometimes took them as far as Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ Icelanders also maintained trading relations with Europe: 'The early Icelanders maintained commercial contacts with Europe and obtained goods from Scandinavia, England, the Norse Orkneys, and the Netherlands. The majority of trade, however, was with Norway, both for Norwegian goods and for foreign goods obtained by Norwegian merchants. The limited resources, especially in terms of raw materials for manufactured goods, made Iceland highly dependent on imported goods. Even before the decline and cessation of grain production in Iceland it is unlikely that Iceland ever produced enough cereals to meet its own needs. Of special significance in a feasting economy, grain and malt were essential to ale production. After Christianization imported wine also become essential for the celebration of communion. Many higher quality iron products, for example weapons and armor, could not be produced from local sources and were imported, mostly in finished forms. Other metals - brass, tin, lead, gold, silver, and bronze - were unavailable locally as well as steatite for utensils and stone suitable for making whetstones. Iceland had a limited number of exportable resources and goods. Homespun woolen cloth was the principal export and was a common standard of value in local exchanges. Sulfur, unavailable from any continental source, was a valuable commodity. Falcons and various animal skins - sheep, fox, and cat - were marketable as were cheese and possibly butter. Fish, the current mainstay of the Icelandic economy was not a significant export item in early Iceland.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ After the conversion to Christianity, Iceland and Scandinavia became part of the greater cultural sphere of Latin Christendom. §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§" }, { "id": 122, "polity": { "id": 115, "name": "is_icelandic_commonwealth", "long_name": "Icelandic Commonwealth", "start_year": 930, "end_year": 1262 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Latin Christendom", "comment": null, "description": " The settlers maintained cultural ties with Scandinavia and the British Isles: 'Iceland was a new society, however Icelandic culture perpetuated many of the cultural standards from Scandinavia, especially Norway. While both Norse and Celtic peoples contributed to the founding population they had unequal impacts on the culture of Iceland. Celts appear to have been incorporated into Norse households and appear to have little lasting impact on the cultural and institutional developments that were predominantly Scandinavian in origin. The first settlers claimed lands and established dispersed farmsteads. Many of the economic practices were unsuitable to the fragile Icelandic environment and resulted in deforestation and land erosion, especially in the uplands. As population grew, settlement expanded, and new farmsteads were divided from previous land claims. In 930 A.D. the General Assembly (ALÞINGI) was founded, providing an institution integrating the entire island. The same assembly accepted Christianity as the religion of the land in 1000 A.D. The thirteenth century was a period of escalating conflict (STURLUNGAÖLD) chieftains attempted to exert control beyond their local regions. The system of autonomous chieftains ended after 1262 A.D. when Iceland came under Norwegian rule. The Viking Age expansion into the North Atlantic did not end at Iceland. In the late tenth century Eirík the Red led a major venture to colonize Greenland and his son, Leifur Eiríksson, has been credited with the European discovery of North America. Early Icelanders maintained close ties with Scandinavia and the British Isles. Continental trading and raiding expeditions were common activities for those with the means to take a share in a boat. Their travels sometimes took them as far as Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ Icelanders also maintained trading relations with Europe: 'The early Icelanders maintained commercial contacts with Europe and obtained goods from Scandinavia, England, the Norse Orkneys, and the Netherlands. The majority of trade, however, was with Norway, both for Norwegian goods and for foreign goods obtained by Norwegian merchants. The limited resources, especially in terms of raw materials for manufactured goods, made Iceland highly dependent on imported goods. Even before the decline and cessation of grain production in Iceland it is unlikely that Iceland ever produced enough cereals to meet its own needs. Of special significance in a feasting economy, grain and malt were essential to ale production. After Christianization imported wine also become essential for the celebration of communion. Many higher quality iron products, for example weapons and armor, could not be produced from local sources and were imported, mostly in finished forms. Other metals - brass, tin, lead, gold, silver, and bronze - were unavailable locally as well as steatite for utensils and stone suitable for making whetstones. Iceland had a limited number of exportable resources and goods. Homespun woolen cloth was the principal export and was a common standard of value in local exchanges. Sulfur, unavailable from any continental source, was a valuable commodity. Falcons and various animal skins - sheep, fox, and cat - were marketable as were cheese and possibly butter. Fish, the current mainstay of the Icelandic economy was not a significant export item in early Iceland.' §REF§Bolender, Douglas James and Beierle, John: eHRAF Cultural Summary for Early Icelanders§REF§ After the conversion to Christianity, Iceland and Scandinavia became part of the greater cultural sphere of Latin Christendom. §REF§Árni Daniel Júlíusson and Axel Kristissen 2017, pers. comm. to E. Brandl and D. Mullins§REF§" }, { "id": 123, "polity": { "id": 179, "name": "it_latium_ba", "long_name": "Latium - Bronze Age", "start_year": -1800, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Appenine culture", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), p. 32§REF§" }, { "id": 124, "polity": { "id": 180, "name": "it_latium_ia", "long_name": "Latium - Iron Age", "start_year": -1000, "end_year": -580 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Latial Culture", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§T.J. Cornell, The Beginnings of Rome (1995), pp. 33-55§REF§" }, { "id": 125, "polity": { "id": 189, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_2", "long_name": "Rome - Republic of St Peter II", "start_year": 904, "end_year": 1198 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Latin Christendom", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 126, "polity": { "id": 190, "name": "it_papal_state_1", "long_name": "Papal States - High Medieval Period", "start_year": 1198, "end_year": 1309 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Christendom", "comment": null, "description": " This ended: \"during the period 1300-1450 CE \"the idea of Christendom as a supranational entity toward which all Christians felt supreme loyalty and affection slowly collapsed. With the evolution of independent political and physical territories, soon to be called national monarchies or states, Christians began to choose between allegiance to state and devotion to church, and many chose the former. By the fifteenth century, the papacy ceased to function as a universal power and more and more like another regional Italian prince jealously guarding his fiefdom.\" §REF§(Madigan 2015, 369) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven.§REF§ The term Christendom (Christianitas) reflects the supranational scope of the Papacy, which being also an international religion, had a degree of control beyond the territorial borders of the Papal State, particularly in the period from the Papacy of Innocent III.§REF§(Madigan 2015) K Madigan. 2015. Medieval Christianity: A New History. Yale University Press. New Haven.§REF§" }, { "id": 127, "polity": { "id": 192, "name": "it_papal_state_3", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period I", "start_year": 1527, "end_year": 1648 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Roman Catholicism", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 128, "polity": { "id": 193, "name": "it_papal_state_4", "long_name": "Papal States - Early Modern Period II", "start_year": 1648, "end_year": 1809 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Roman Catholicism", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 129, "polity": { "id": 191, "name": "it_papal_state_2", "long_name": "Papal States - Renaissance Period", "start_year": 1378, "end_year": 1527 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Christendom", "comment": null, "description": " However, during the period 1300-1450 CE \"the idea of Christendom as a supranational entity toward which all Christians felt supreme loyalty and affection slowly collapsed. With the evolution of independent political and physical territories, soon to be called national monarchies or states, Christians began to choose between allegiance to state and devotion to church, and many chose the former. By the fifteenth century, the papacy ceased to function as a universal power and more and more like another regional Italian prince jealously guarding his fiefdom.\"§REF§(Madigan 2015, 369)§REF§" }, { "id": 130, "polity": { "id": 187, "name": "it_ravenna_exarchate", "long_name": "Exarchate of Ravenna", "start_year": 568, "end_year": 751 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Roman", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 131, "polity": { "id": 182, "name": "it_roman_rep_1", "long_name": "Early Roman Republic", "start_year": -509, "end_year": -264 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Latin States", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 132, "polity": { "id": 184, "name": "it_roman_rep_3", "long_name": "Late Roman Republic", "start_year": -133, "end_year": -31 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Roman", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 133, "polity": { "id": 183, "name": "it_roman_rep_2", "long_name": "Middle Roman Republic", "start_year": -264, "end_year": -133 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Roman", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 134, "polity": { "id": 70, "name": "it_roman_principate", "long_name": "Roman Empire - Principate", "start_year": -31, "end_year": 284 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Greco-Roman", "comment": null, "description": " covers entire area of Roman Empire, plus much territory in Britain, northern Europe, central and western Africa, and the Near East and Central Asia" }, { "id": 135, "polity": { "id": 181, "name": "it_roman_k", "long_name": "Roman Kingdom", "start_year": -716, "end_year": -509 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Hellenistic Civilization", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 136, "polity": { "id": 185, "name": "it_western_roman_emp", "long_name": "Western Roman Empire - Late Antiquity", "start_year": 395, "end_year": 476 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Roman", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 137, "polity": { "id": 188, "name": "it_st_peter_rep_1", "long_name": "Republic of St Peter I", "start_year": 752, "end_year": 904 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Latin Christendom", "comment": null, "description": " <span style=\"color:blue\">Area of Latin Christendom needs to be defined - do we include the Eastern Orthodox world, even though this distinction did not exist then, or the maximum reach of Christianity in Latin language?</span>" }, { "id": 138, "polity": { "id": 544, "name": "it_venetian_rep_3", "long_name": "Republic of Venice III", "start_year": 1204, "end_year": 1563 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Christiandom", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 139, "polity": { "id": 149, "name": "jp_ashikaga", "long_name": "Ashikaga Shogunate", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1467 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Japanese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 140, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "T'ang China", "comment": null, "description": " Some architectural structures and mural paintings show strong influence from T'ang China and the Korean kingdom of Koguryo§REF§Farris, William Wayne (1998). Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues on the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan. University of Hawaii Press. p. 95.§REF§. In addition, a wave of Korean migrants to Japan occurred after the T'ang invasion of Korea in the 660's. As a consequence, the substatntial influx of Korean artisans, builders, administrators,elites members and various specialists favoured the spread of Korean culture§REF§Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 210-213.§REF§." }, { "id": 141, "polity": { "id": 146, "name": "jp_asuka", "long_name": "Asuka", "start_year": 538, "end_year": 710 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Korea", "comment": null, "description": " Some architectural structures and mural paintings show strong influence from T'ang China and the Korean kingdom of Koguryo§REF§Farris, William Wayne (1998). Sacred Texts and Buried Treasures: Issues on the Historical Archaeology of Ancient Japan. University of Hawaii Press. p. 95.§REF§. In addition, a wave of Korean migrants to Japan occurred after the T'ang invasion of Korea in the 660's. As a consequence, the substatntial influx of Korean artisans, builders, administrators,elites members and various specialists favoured the spread of Korean culture§REF§Brown, D., 1993.The Cambridge History of Japan, vol. 2.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 210-213.§REF§." }, { "id": 142, "polity": { "id": 151, "name": "jp_azuchi_momoyama", "long_name": "Japan - Azuchi-Momoyama", "start_year": 1568, "end_year": 1603 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Japanese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 143, "polity": { "id": 147, "name": "jp_heian", "long_name": "Heian", "start_year": 794, "end_year": 1185 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Tang China", "comment": null, "description": " 'By the beginning of the Heian period, the chief remaining reason for maintaining state relations with the T'ang court seems to have been trade. The earlier quest for knowledge of Chinese culture and institutions and the desire to keep abreast of the developments in the East Asian international world, and to participate as a leading member in the Chinese diplomatic order, had been largely fulfilled.'§REF§Shively, Donald H. and McCullough, William H. 2008. The Cambridge History of Japan Volume 2: Heian Japan. Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press.p.84§REF§" }, { "id": 144, "polity": { "id": 148, "name": "jp_kamakura", "long_name": "Kamakura Shogunate", "start_year": 1185, "end_year": 1333 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "none", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 145, "polity": { "id": 145, "name": "jp_kofun", "long_name": "Kansai - Kofun Period", "start_year": 250, "end_year": 537 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Initial Kofun Package", "comment": null, "description": "Mizoguchi (2013) characterizes one broad regional cultural horizon: the Initial Kofun package, which spread from northern Kyushu to Kanto (see Figure 1 below)§REF§Mizohuchi, K., 2009. Nodes and edges: A network approach to hierarchisation and state formation in Japan. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28, pp. 15, 18-19.§REF§.This homogeneous cultural horizon is characterised by the prevalence of keyhole-shaped tumulus containing a set of grave goods such as bronze mirrors, bronze and iron tools and weapons§REF§Mizoguchi, k., 2009.Nodes and edges: A network approach to hierarchisation and state formation in Japan. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28, pp. 15.§REF§." }, { "id": 146, "polity": { "id": 263, "name": "jp_nara", "long_name": "Nara Kingdom", "start_year": 710, "end_year": 794 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "T'ang China", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 147, "polity": { "id": 150, "name": "jp_sengoku_jidai", "long_name": "Warring States Japan", "start_year": 1467, "end_year": 1568 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Japanese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 148, "polity": { "id": 152, "name": "jp_tokugawa_shogunate", "long_name": "Tokugawa Shogunate", "start_year": 1603, "end_year": 1868 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Japanese", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 149, "polity": { "id": 144, "name": "jp_yayoi", "long_name": "Kansai - Yayoi Period", "start_year": -300, "end_year": 250 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Western horizon", "comment": null, "description": " Mizoguchi (2013) characterize three different broad regional cultural units: the Kyushu,the western and eastern horizons. These units developed different sets of material culture (pottery, metal object) burial practice and settlement hierarchy. The western horizon comprises the regions of Kansai (Kinki), Chugoku and Shikoku§REF§K. Mizoguchi, 2013. The Archaeology of Japan. From the Earliest Rice Farming Villages to the Rise of the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 104-124.§REF§." }, { "id": 150, "polity": { "id": 289, "name": "kg_kara_khanid_dyn", "long_name": "Kara-Khanids", "start_year": 950, "end_year": 1212 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Perso-Islamic", "comment": null, "description": " Perso-Islamic?: \"the synthesis that had been developed since the early Abbasid period, bringing ancient Iranian, pre-Islamic ideas of kingship into an Islamic context. The tenth century had witnessed the heyday of this synthesis, as under ethnically Iranian dynasties like the Buyids ancient titles like shahanshah (king of kings) were revived.\"§REF§(Peacock 2015, 134-135) Peacock, A C S. 2015. The Great Seljuk Empire. Edinburgh University Press.§REF§ Karakhanids were Buddhist but \"in the 950s the new rulers of Kashgar proclaimed their conversion to Islam.\"§REF§(Starr 2013) Starr, S. Frederick. 2013. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia's Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. Princeton University Press. Princeton.§REF§ Turco-Islamic? The Karakhanids themselves formed a Turkic elite and likely to have used Turkic for the military." }, { "id": 151, "polity": { "id": 41, "name": "kh_angkor_2", "long_name": "Classical Angkor", "start_year": 1100, "end_year": 1220 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_supracultural_entity", "supracultural_entity": "Indianized Southeast Asia", "comment": null, "description": " 'In contrast, the Hindu religion and its trappings offered the benefits of royal ideology tailor-made for nascent Southeast Asian kings, no political strings attached [as in Chinese-style imperial bureaucracy]. Here is what Indianization eventually brought to the region: the rich and complex Hindu religion, its mythology and cosmology, and its ritual (see p. 80); in particular, the cults of the gods Shiva and Vishnu, with whom local kings could identify. The Sanskrit language, the vehicle of Hinduism and one sect of Buddhism, and the source of many loan-works in early Khmer. The Indic (Brahmi) writing system, stone inscriptions and palm-leaf books. The Hindu temple complex, and an architectural tradition of brick and/or stone based upon Gupta prototypes. Statuary representing gods, kings and the Buddha. Cremation burial, at least of the upper stratum of society. Rectilineal town and city plans. Artificial water systems, including rectangular reservoirs (the srah and bray of Classic Khmer culture), as well as canals. Wheel-made pottery, which supplemented but did not supplant the local paddle-and-anvil ceramic tradition.'§REF§(Coe 2003, p. 63)§REF§" } ] }