Polity Degree Of Centralization List
A viewset for viewing and editing Polity Degrees of Centralization.
GET /api/general/polity-degree-of-centralizations/?format=api&page=4
{ "count": 499, "next": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-degree-of-centralizations/?format=api&page=5", "previous": "https://seshat-db.com/api/general/polity-degree-of-centralizations/?format=api&page=3", "results": [ { "id": 151, "polity": { "id": 85, "name": "in_deccan_nl", "long_name": "Deccan - Neolithic", "start_year": -2700, "end_year": -1200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "quasi-polity", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 152, "polity": { "id": 135, "name": "in_delhi_sultanate", "long_name": "Delhi Sultanate", "start_year": 1206, "end_year": 1526 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "comment": null, "description": "Centralisation only lasted for a few decades before the polity become much more loosely organised.§REF§Habib, I. (2005). The Delhi Sultanate in The state and society in medieval India. Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp.37-44.§REF§<br>\"the Delhi Sultanate was more like a conglomeration of nearly-independent principalities, jagirs and provinces, each ruled by a hereditary chief or zamindar, with their subjects looking more to their immediate governors who had absolute power in the provinces than the sovereign who was far away.\"§REF§(Ahmed 2011, 100) Ahmed, Farooqui Salma. 2011. A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson Education India.§REF§<br>Only the area around the capital and a few major fortresses elsewhere, were under the direct rule of the sultan. Outlying areas were administered either by Muslim governors appointed from Delhi or by Hindu kings who recognized the sultan’s supremacy. Across most of the sultanate, local power remained in the hands of petty Hindu chieftains. In return for paying the land revenue to muqtas, subject kings, provincial governors, or sultans, the chieftains were allowed to rule their tiny kingdoms more or less as they pleased. Governers and kings alike assumed independence whenever the sultanate was too weak to keep them in check. §REF§McLeod, J. (2002). The history of India (Vol. 1096, No. 2905). Greenwood Publishing Group, pp.39.§REF§" }, { "id": 153, "polity": { "id": 111, "name": "in_achik_1", "long_name": "Early A'chik", "start_year": 1775, "end_year": 1867 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "quasi-polity", "comment": null, "description": " Prior to British imperial rule, the A’chik tribal population was not organized around a common political or administrative centre, with clans and lineages being the only supra-local social institutions: ‘The Garos are divided into nine subtribes: the Awe, Chisak, Matchi-Dual, Matabeng, Ambeng, Ruga-Chibox, Gara-Ganching, Atong, and the Megam. These are geographic subtribes, but are also dialectal and subcultural groups. According to their beliefs and religion, the Garos are divided into the SONGSAREK (following their indigenous beliefs and practices) and the Christians.’ §REF§Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo§REF§" }, { "id": 154, "polity": { "id": 112, "name": "in_achik_2", "long_name": "Late A'chik", "start_year": 1867, "end_year": 1956 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "loose", "comment": null, "description": " Prior to British imperial rule, the A’chik tribal population was not organized around a common political or administrative centre, with clans and lineages being the only supra-local social institutions: ‘The Garos are divided into nine subtribes: the Awe, Chisak, Matchi-Dual, Matabeng, Ambeng, Ruga-Chibox, Gara-Ganching, Atong, and the Megam. These are geographic subtribes, but are also dialectal and subcultural groups. According to their beliefs and religion, the Garos are divided into the SONGSAREK (following their indigenous beliefs and practices) and the Christians.’ §REF§Roy, Sankar Kumar: eHRAF Cultural Summary for the Garo§REF§ During the colonial period, a British administrative structure was superimposed on the native population, but the latter largely continued to regulate local matters according to A’chik laws and institutions: ‘Garo tribe inhabit the Garo Hills district in the state of Meghalaya. The district used to be administered as a ‘partially excluded area’ by the Deputy Commissioner under the executive orders of the British Government during the British rule. The tribal ways of life, community ownership and use of land and the administration of the society according to the traditional laws and customs were least interfered with overtly under the British Administration.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 28§REF§ The A’chik retained some autonomy under Indian rule as well: ‘The history of Khasi, and Jaintia hills and its people can be found from the early part of the sixteenth century, as prior to this neither the records nor traditions reveal any substantial information. Moderately large changes were brought forth through development of the settlements and the formation of the Khasi and the Jaintia Hill district in the year 1835 and the Garo district in the year 1866. The capital of these provinces was Cherrapunji in 1827 which later on was shifted to Shillong in 1864. The prevailing groups in the State are the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo. In an amendment made recently in the provision of Scheduled Tribe in the Constitution of India, the Rabha, the Bodo-Kachari and the Koch have been given the status of Scheduled Tribe in the State.’ §REF§Marak, Kumie R. 1997. “Traditions And Modernity In Matrilineal Tribal Society”, 38§REF§" }, { "id": 155, "polity": { "id": 388, "name": "in_gupta_emp", "long_name": "Gupta Empire", "start_year": 320, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "loose", "comment": null, "description": " \"In the Deccan and elsewhere beyond the frontiers of his Gangetic <i>arya-varta</i>, [Samudra-Gupta] had made no attempt at annexation. 'Uprooted' kings were reinstated, their territories restored, and the Gupta forces withdrawn. A one-off tribute was exacted and on this the Gupta court waxed wealthy[...]. But unlike the directly administered empire of the Mauryas, this was at best a web of feudatory arrangements and one which, lacking an obvious bureaucratic structure, left the sovereignty of the feudatories intact. [...] In the case of distant rulers a nominal submission looks to have been sufficient, while of those nearer at hand regular attendance on the <i>cakravartin</i> was also required.\"§REF§(Keay 2010, 139-140) Keay, John. 2010. India: A History. New Updated Edition. London: HarperPress. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/HSHAKZ3X</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 156, "polity": { "id": 95, "name": "in_hoysala_k", "long_name": "Hoysala Kingdom", "start_year": 1108, "end_year": 1346 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": " Accordin to Derrett, there were feudatories of the Hoysala Kingdom in 1142, but the Hoysala kingdom itself was a subordinate of the Calukyas §REF§J. Duncan M. Derrett, The Hoysalas (1957), p. 68-9, 86§REF§" }, { "id": 157, "polity": { "id": 91, "name": "in_kadamba_emp", "long_name": "Kadamba Empire", "start_year": 345, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": " feudal empire; tripartite empire Inferred from the fact that the empire's provinces were not directly ruled by the Emperor, but by \"viceroys\" §REF§Suryanatha Kamath, A Concise History of Karnataka (1980), p. 39§REF§. After Mrigashavarma's succession to the throne in 450, his brothers declared themselves independent rulers of their own territories, and the empire was therefore split into three smaller polities §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), pp. 47-48§REF§. In the literature, this appears to be considered more a \"phase\" in the empire's history than the beginning of three new polities, which is why I have elected not to create a separate page for whichever polity included the NGA we are interested in. Indeed, the polities would eventually reunite §REF§H.V. Sreenivasa Murthy and R. Ramakrishnan, A History of Karnataka (1978), p. 48§REF§." }, { "id": 158, "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": "Inferred from the following: \"With the exception of Kampili, which never controlled large territories, each of these states incorporated local elites into their administrative structures in various ways, adding additional levels of complexity to this shifting political mosaic.\" §REF§(Sinopoli 2003, 66)§REF§<br>\"The Hoysala state remained a significant southern power until the sultanate invasions in AD 1310.\"§REF§(Sinopoli 2003, 74)§REF§" }, { "id": 159, "polity": { "id": 96, "name": "in_kampili_k", "long_name": "Kampili Kingdom", "start_year": 1280, "end_year": 1327 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "nominal", "comment": null, "description": "Inferred from the following: \"With the exception of Kampili, which never controlled large territories, each of these states incorporated local elites into their administrative structures in various ways, adding additional levels of complexity to this shifting political mosaic.\" §REF§(Sinopoli 2003, 66)§REF§<br>\"The Hoysala state remained a significant southern power until the sultanate invasions in AD 1310.\"§REF§(Sinopoli 2003, 74)§REF§" }, { "id": 160, "polity": { "id": 87, "name": "in_mauryan_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Maurya Empire", "start_year": -324, "end_year": -187 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": "This is contested between two main positions among scholars. The first assumes that empires and centralization happen together, and is based on an uncritical reading of the main source for the period, the Arthashastra. The source is from the perspective of elites in the imperial centre, and may be overstating the efficiency of the state. §REF§Singh, Upinder. A History of Ancient and Early medieval India: from the Stone Age to the 12th century. Pearson Education India, 2008, p. 340§REF§. The work of Gerard Fussman instead presents an argument that the empire could not have been centralized based on both the size and the technology of communication avaliable at the time. This argument is further bolstered by the presence of non-literal translations of edicts in local administrative languages. §REF§Singh, A History of Ancient and Early medieval India, p. 340§REF§ As with most questions of this nature, the empire was in parts centralized, and part autonomous. It was a large metropolitan state with an outward looking elite overseeing with varying degrees of success over a large and in no way homogeneous collection of functionaries at both the provincial, district and village level connected together through a central vision originating with the King." }, { "id": 161, "polity": { "id": 98, "name": "in_mughal_emp", "long_name": "Mughal Empire", "start_year": 1526, "end_year": 1858 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": " The Mughal empire had a centralized and imperialistic government; the emperor had unlimited freedom in making laws. Although he had a council of ministers he was not bound to consult them. The third Emperor, Abu Akbar, established a form of delegated government in which the provincial governors were personally responsible to him for the quality of government in their territory. Taxes were imposed by, and transmitted to, the center (the emperor). §REF§C. Srinivasa Reddy, Mughal Historiography; review of Panjab in the Seventeenth Century by Chetan Singh, Social Scientist, Vol. 21, No. 1/2 (1993), pp. 105§REF§" }, { "id": 162, "polity": { "id": 93, "name": "in_rashtrakuta_emp", "long_name": "Rashtrakuta Empire", "start_year": 753, "end_year": 973 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "loose", "comment": null, "description": " The Emperor was \"the source of all power and the head of the civil, military as well as judicial administration\"§REF§A.P. Madan, The History of the Rashtrakutas (1990), p. 193§REF§. However, he did not rule directly over annexed territories: rather, he subdivided his empire among his subordinates (feudatories), who in turn subdivided their own territories among their own subordinates (sub-feudatories), and \"feudatories and sub-feudatories enjoyed almost complete autonomy\"§REF§A.P. Madan, The History of the Rashtrakutas (1990), p. 192§REF§." }, { "id": 163, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "loose", "comment": null, "description": "\"The fragmentation of the kingdom was inevitable as the Satavahana state was very loosely organized, with the local administration, even the maintenance of the royal army, being largely left to their feudatories, who even struck their own coins. This loose state organization was necessitated by the limited economic resources of the kingdom; the soil of their land being poor, the Satavahanas could not afford to maintain a large standing army or an elaborate administrative organization.\"§REF§(Eraly 2011, 56) Abraham Eraly. 2011. The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Viking. Penguin Books India Pvt, Ltd.§REF§<br>Only centralized after moving east after 140 CE: \"The continued invasions by the Sakas of Ujjain (Malwa) and the prospects of encroaching upon the rich regions in the southern and eastern Deccan prompted them to shift their political base to the east around AD 140. The Satavahana state brought with it an organized administration and bureaucracy, a standing army, garrison towns, provincial administrative headquarters and a fortified capital.\"" }, { "id": 164, "polity": { "id": 89, "name": "in_satavahana_emp", "long_name": "Satavahana Empire", "start_year": -100, "end_year": 200 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": "\"The fragmentation of the kingdom was inevitable as the Satavahana state was very loosely organized, with the local administration, even the maintenance of the royal army, being largely left to their feudatories, who even struck their own coins. This loose state organization was necessitated by the limited economic resources of the kingdom; the soil of their land being poor, the Satavahanas could not afford to maintain a large standing army or an elaborate administrative organization.\"§REF§(Eraly 2011, 56) Abraham Eraly. 2011. The First Spring: The Golden Age of India. Viking. Penguin Books India Pvt, Ltd.§REF§<br>Only centralized after moving east after 140 CE: \"The continued invasions by the Sakas of Ujjain (Malwa) and the prospects of encroaching upon the rich regions in the southern and eastern Deccan prompted them to shift their political base to the east around AD 140. The Satavahana state brought with it an organized administration and bureaucracy, a standing army, garrison towns, provincial administrative headquarters and a fortified capital.\"" }, { "id": 165, "polity": { "id": 385, "name": "in_sunga_emp", "long_name": "Magadha - Sunga Empire", "start_year": -187, "end_year": -65 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "uncoded", "comment": null, "description": " \"[I]t would be worthwhile to assess whether the evidence at our disposal really indicates that any such “Śuṅga” empire existed in this time. The only reason for this belief has been the puranic mentions of Puṣyamitra and his exploits, supported weakly by two inscriptional mentions, viz., the reckoning of one of the Pabhosa inscription in the tenth year of a so-called Śuṅga ruler Odraka/Udāka, and two words at the beginning of one of the Bhārhut inscriptions which roughly translate as “during the Śuṅga rule.” None of this evidence is critically attested—the first has been widely contested, especially for the meaning of the word “Udāka,” and the second is too scanty to prove any point even after the words are regarded as they are. Coins of one of the rulers mentioned in same Bharhut inscription, viz., Agarāju, are known, and they conform to the regiospecific series of one of the urban centers in Vatsa. Coins of two rulers in the Pabhosa inscription are known, viz., Vangapāla and Bahasatimita—one of them conforms to the Pāñchāla series and the other to the Kausambi/Vatsa realm. None of them suggest any “Śuṅga” connection. The name of a “Senāpati Puṣyamitra” does occur in the Ayodhya inscription of Dhana(deva) but here too, the inference that he was an imperial overlord of any sort is entirely conjectural. [...] In short, the puranic mentions are nothing but a series of details confused in time and space. “Śuṅgas,” if they ever existed, were probably as localized as the rest of the groups we know from coins in terms of their political prowess. Coins offer an entirely different picture of the post-Mauryan fragmentation, which links two singularly important phenomena of ancient Indian history—the fall of an empire and a concomitant spurt in urbanization with an increase in localized money economy. They also hint a probable non sequitur—the fall of historical jargon that makes random use of terms like “Śuṅga supremacy” and “Śuṅga art.”\"§REF§(Bhandare 2006, 97) Shailendra Bhandare. 2006. 'Numismatics and History: The Maurya-Gupta Interlude in the Gangetic Plain' in <i>Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE</i>, edited by Patrick Olivelle. Oxford: Oxford University Press.§REF§" }, { "id": 166, "polity": { "id": 90, "name": "in_vakataka_k", "long_name": "Vakataka Kingdom", "start_year": 255, "end_year": 550 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": "Central authority<br>\"the Vakataka period is represented by, 1. change in settlement pattern, 2. permanent land grants, 3. centrally ruling authority, 4. absence of long distance trade, and 5. revival of Brahmanism\"§REF§(Sawant 2009) Reshma Sawant. 2008. ‘State Formation Process In The Vidarbha During The Vakataka Period’. <i>Bulletin of the Deccan College Post-Graduate and Research Institute</i> 68-69: 137-162.<§REF§<br>Under Harishena, \"no contemporary kingdom was so extensive and powerful. Hari-shena must have been an able ruler, a skilful administrator, and a renowned general to render this achievement possible.\"§REF§(Majumbar and Altekar 1946, 123) Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra. Altekar, Anant Sadashiv. 1986. Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers.§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 167, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "loose", "comment": null, "description": " loose: 1336-1509; confederated state: 1509-1565; nominal: 1565-1646While there is some debate over whether to define the relations between local lordships and the Vijayanagara kings as feudal or other, but there is no doubt that the degree of centralization differed during various periods of the kingdom.<br>The early Vijayanagara kingdom was more a group of semi-autonomous states rather than a unified kingdom. Centralized authority was enhanced by the occasional appointment of non-kinsmen, including Brahmans, to important military commands, and even to governorships of one of the five core provinces in the center of the kingdom. But this was not the usual policy; most often sons of the king ruled for him§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 27-8§REF§.<br>Through most of the first dynasty, Vijayanagara kings were content to be conquerors whose conquests left the ancient Cholas and Panyas in their sovereign places, except that they were reduced by their homage to Vijayanagara. Until the early sixteenth century, the latter were ritual sovereigns everywhere outside their Deccan heartland; apart from occasional plundering forays, they were content with the homage of distant lords§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 140§REF§. Krishnadevaraya (reigned 1509-29§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 27§REF§) changed much of this. He replaced earlier royal predecessors by his own Brahmans and military commanders and charged his agents to extract money tribute from subordinate lords who had previously been required to pay nothing to Vijayanagara, merely to acknowledge the latter's hegemony in a number of symbolic ways§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 140§REF§.<br>Krishnadevaraya cast aside the ancient the ancient Chola and Pandya kings in the South and installed military commanders who not long after established centers of sovereignty opposed to its successors§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 141§REF§.<br>After the catastrophic sack of the capital of Vijayanagara in 1565, the kingdom saw a big decline in power, and a series of civil wars§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 13, 122§REF§. It was also during this time that the 'Nayaka kingdoms', which had emerged at the very zenith of the Vijayanagara monarchy (during the early 16th century; e.g. Mysore and Ikkeri), became increasingly independent and sought to avert the re-emergence of a strong Vijayanagara king capable of reducing their authority and territorial ambitions§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 130-9§REF§. Thus, the level of the centralization of the kingdom post-1565 should be defined as 'nominal'." }, { "id": 168, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "comment": null, "description": " loose: 1336-1509; confederated state: 1509-1565; nominal: 1565-1646While there is some debate over whether to define the relations between local lordships and the Vijayanagara kings as feudal or other, but there is no doubt that the degree of centralization differed during various periods of the kingdom.<br>The early Vijayanagara kingdom was more a group of semi-autonomous states rather than a unified kingdom. Centralized authority was enhanced by the occasional appointment of non-kinsmen, including Brahmans, to important military commands, and even to governorships of one of the five core provinces in the center of the kingdom. But this was not the usual policy; most often sons of the king ruled for him§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 27-8§REF§.<br>Through most of the first dynasty, Vijayanagara kings were content to be conquerors whose conquests left the ancient Cholas and Panyas in their sovereign places, except that they were reduced by their homage to Vijayanagara. Until the early sixteenth century, the latter were ritual sovereigns everywhere outside their Deccan heartland; apart from occasional plundering forays, they were content with the homage of distant lords§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 140§REF§. Krishnadevaraya (reigned 1509-29§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 27§REF§) changed much of this. He replaced earlier royal predecessors by his own Brahmans and military commanders and charged his agents to extract money tribute from subordinate lords who had previously been required to pay nothing to Vijayanagara, merely to acknowledge the latter's hegemony in a number of symbolic ways§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 140§REF§.<br>Krishnadevaraya cast aside the ancient the ancient Chola and Pandya kings in the South and installed military commanders who not long after established centers of sovereignty opposed to its successors§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 141§REF§.<br>After the catastrophic sack of the capital of Vijayanagara in 1565, the kingdom saw a big decline in power, and a series of civil wars§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 13, 122§REF§. It was also during this time that the 'Nayaka kingdoms', which had emerged at the very zenith of the Vijayanagara monarchy (during the early 16th century; e.g. Mysore and Ikkeri), became increasingly independent and sought to avert the re-emergence of a strong Vijayanagara king capable of reducing their authority and territorial ambitions§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 130-9§REF§. Thus, the level of the centralization of the kingdom post-1565 should be defined as 'nominal'." }, { "id": 169, "polity": { "id": 97, "name": "in_vijayanagara_emp", "long_name": "Vijayanagara Empire", "start_year": 1336, "end_year": 1646 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "nominal", "comment": null, "description": " loose: 1336-1509; confederated state: 1509-1565; nominal: 1565-1646While there is some debate over whether to define the relations between local lordships and the Vijayanagara kings as feudal or other, but there is no doubt that the degree of centralization differed during various periods of the kingdom.<br>The early Vijayanagara kingdom was more a group of semi-autonomous states rather than a unified kingdom. Centralized authority was enhanced by the occasional appointment of non-kinsmen, including Brahmans, to important military commands, and even to governorships of one of the five core provinces in the center of the kingdom. But this was not the usual policy; most often sons of the king ruled for him§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 27-8§REF§.<br>Through most of the first dynasty, Vijayanagara kings were content to be conquerors whose conquests left the ancient Cholas and Panyas in their sovereign places, except that they were reduced by their homage to Vijayanagara. Until the early sixteenth century, the latter were ritual sovereigns everywhere outside their Deccan heartland; apart from occasional plundering forays, they were content with the homage of distant lords§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 140§REF§. Krishnadevaraya (reigned 1509-29§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 27§REF§) changed much of this. He replaced earlier royal predecessors by his own Brahmans and military commanders and charged his agents to extract money tribute from subordinate lords who had previously been required to pay nothing to Vijayanagara, merely to acknowledge the latter's hegemony in a number of symbolic ways§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 140§REF§.<br>Krishnadevaraya cast aside the ancient the ancient Chola and Pandya kings in the South and installed military commanders who not long after established centers of sovereignty opposed to its successors§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 141§REF§.<br>After the catastrophic sack of the capital of Vijayanagara in 1565, the kingdom saw a big decline in power, and a series of civil wars§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 13, 122§REF§. It was also during this time that the 'Nayaka kingdoms', which had emerged at the very zenith of the Vijayanagara monarchy (during the early 16th century; e.g. Mysore and Ikkeri), became increasingly independent and sought to avert the re-emergence of a strong Vijayanagara king capable of reducing their authority and territorial ambitions§REF§Burton Stein, The New Cambridge History of India: Vijayanagara (1990), p. 130-9§REF§. Thus, the level of the centralization of the kingdom post-1565 should be defined as 'nominal'." }, { "id": 170, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": " unitary state: 750-936 CE; nominal: 937-946 CE In 936 CE, the Caliphate lost substantial powers of authority and was reduced in its ability to control outlying territory because of bankruptcy and the disintegration of the army. The Caliph granted Ibn Ra'iq the control of military and civil power. Ten years later, the Daylamite Buyids conquered Baghdad, reducing the Abbasid Caliphs to figureheads. §REF§Lapidus, Ira A., History of Islamic Society 2nd edition(Cambridge, 2002), pp. 58-60§REF§." }, { "id": 171, "polity": { "id": 132, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_1", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate I", "start_year": 750, "end_year": 946 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "nominal", "comment": null, "description": " unitary state: 750-936 CE; nominal: 937-946 CE In 936 CE, the Caliphate lost substantial powers of authority and was reduced in its ability to control outlying territory because of bankruptcy and the disintegration of the army. The Caliph granted Ibn Ra'iq the control of military and civil power. Ten years later, the Daylamite Buyids conquered Baghdad, reducing the Abbasid Caliphs to figureheads. §REF§Lapidus, Ira A., History of Islamic Society 2nd edition(Cambridge, 2002), pp. 58-60§REF§." }, { "id": 172, "polity": { "id": 484, "name": "iq_abbasid_cal_2", "long_name": "Abbasid Caliphate II", "start_year": 1191, "end_year": 1258 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 173, "polity": { "id": 476, "name": "iq_akkad_emp", "long_name": "Akkadian Empire", "start_year": -2270, "end_year": -2083 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": " All Akkadian kings aimed to centralize power and control all local governors. Therefore, they undertook several reforms such using Akkadian in official calculation, set the officials and governors which will be dependent on them etc.§REF§Postgate 2007,36§REF§<br>Akkadian Empire: \"It was an entity put together and maintained by force, with provinces administered by officials sent out from the capital in the heartland. This is precisely what we see in the Akkadian period.\"§REF§(Foster 2016, 80) Foster, Benjamin R. 2016. The Age of Agade. Inventing Empire In Ancient Mesopotamia. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>Akkaddian empire can be divided into centre and periphery. \"In the centre, Akkadian control was exercised in a compact, yet indirect way. The administration of cities was left in the hands of the local ensi. These were under the authority of the king of Akkad, but held a certain degree of autonomy. It is probably that some cities were ruled by an Akkadian ensi appointed by the king, while other cities continued to be ruled by a local ensi.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 138) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 174, "polity": { "id": 479, "name": "iq_babylonia_1", "long_name": "Amorite Babylonia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "nominal", "comment": null, "description": " Until the reign of Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE), Babylon existed as a petty state. Kings of smaller city-states would pledge their allegiance to one of the bigger city-states thus creating petty states. The allegiance of the small city-states was constantly fluctuating, thus the size and influence of the petty states were also never constant. Babylon had the allegiance of a number of city states put each still had a king and Babylon's influence was minimal. §REF§Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.61§REF§<br>Once Hammurabi started his military campaigns, he began exerting military power over former allies, such as Zimri-Lin, then further afield in Southern Mesopotamia. He soon claimed the title 'King of Sumer and Akkad' and later had control of cities such as Assur and Nineveh, thus becoming king of Assyria. While major administrative changes occurred, many of the governing bodies of the cities remained and a significant degree of decision making remained in the former city-states. §REF§Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.65§REF§" }, { "id": 175, "polity": { "id": 479, "name": "iq_babylonia_1", "long_name": "Amorite Babylonia", "start_year": -2000, "end_year": -1600 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "comment": null, "description": " Until the reign of Hammurabi (1792-1750 BCE), Babylon existed as a petty state. Kings of smaller city-states would pledge their allegiance to one of the bigger city-states thus creating petty states. The allegiance of the small city-states was constantly fluctuating, thus the size and influence of the petty states were also never constant. Babylon had the allegiance of a number of city states put each still had a king and Babylon's influence was minimal. §REF§Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.61§REF§<br>Once Hammurabi started his military campaigns, he began exerting military power over former allies, such as Zimri-Lin, then further afield in Southern Mesopotamia. He soon claimed the title 'King of Sumer and Akkad' and later had control of cities such as Assur and Nineveh, thus becoming king of Assyria. While major administrative changes occurred, many of the governing bodies of the cities remained and a significant degree of decision making remained in the former city-states. §REF§Oates, J. Babylon. Revised Edition. London: Thames and Hudson. p.65§REF§" }, { "id": 176, "polity": { "id": 342, "name": "iq_babylonia_2", "long_name": "Kassite Babylonia", "start_year": -1595, "end_year": -1150 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "comment": null, "description": " There was a large influx of foreigners and hill people in the Kassite period. Together with the tribes, which inhabited their own provinces, this caused a lack of centralisation in the Kassite period when Babylon was largely de-urbanised §REF§Liverani, M. 2014. The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. London: Routledge. p.364-366§REF§ and the more rural, tribal communities existed in a kind of feudal state. §REF§Balkan, K. 1986. Studies in Babylonian Feudalism of the Kassite Period. Monographs on the Ancient Near East. Volume 2. Malibu: Undena Publications§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 177, "polity": { "id": 481, "name": "iq_bazi_dyn", "long_name": "Bazi Dynasty", "start_year": -1005, "end_year": -986 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "nominal", "comment": null, "description": " \"In terms of content, the Advice to a Prince provides a window into the relationship between royal control and the autonomy of the cities. The political and administrative crisis had forced each city to look after itself. Rather than governors appointed by the kingdom, temples acted as the real centres of local resources and activities. Indeed, temples could rely on their millenary tradition, administrative structure, prestige, and ability to motivate the population. They therefore required and obtained from the kings (probably the weakest ones) a certain degree of autonomy and various exemptions from tributes and obligations (defined with the terms kidinnu in Kassite and zakûtu in Akkadian). They also had a certain degree of self-government for the administration of justice and of the cities’ internal affairs.\"§REF§(Liverani 2014, 471) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 178, "polity": { "id": 482, "name": "iq_dynasty_e", "long_name": "Dynasty of E", "start_year": -979, "end_year": -732 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "nominal", "comment": null, "description": " \"In terms of content, the Advice to a Prince provides a window into the relationship between royal control and the autonomy of the cities. The political and administrative crisis had forced each city to look after itself. Rather than governors appointed by the kingdom, temples acted as the real centres of local resources and activities. Indeed, temples could rely on their millenary tradition, administrative structure, prestige, and ability to motivate the population. They therefore required and obtained from the kings (probably the weakest ones) a certain degree of autonomy and various exemptions from tributes and obligations (defined with the terms kidinnu in Kassite and zakûtu in Akkadian). They also had a certain degree of self-government for the administration of justice and of the cities’ internal affairs.\"§REF§(Liverani 2014, 471) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 179, "polity": { "id": 475, "name": "iq_early_dynastic", "long_name": "Early Dynastic", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "quasi-polity", "comment": null, "description": " quasi-polity: 2900-2700 BCE; nominal: 2700-2270 BCE§REF§Brisch 2013, 117-120§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 180, "polity": { "id": 475, "name": "iq_early_dynastic", "long_name": "Early Dynastic", "start_year": -2900, "end_year": -2500 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "nominal", "comment": null, "description": " quasi-polity: 2900-2700 BCE; nominal: 2700-2270 BCE§REF§Brisch 2013, 117-120§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 181, "polity": { "id": 480, "name": "iq_isin_dynasty2", "long_name": "Second Dynasty of Isin", "start_year": -1153, "end_year": -1027 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "comment": null, "description": " \"Within the land of Sumer and Akkad, the administration of the dynasty of Isin continued along the same lines as in the Kassite period. We know of around twenty provinces ruled by a governor (šakin ma¯ti, then šakin te¯mi). Some of these provinces were named after their main city (Nippur, Isin, Dur-Kurigalzu, and so on). There were also other territorial entities and tribal ‘houses’ (defined with the term Bït plus the name of the ancestor). The ‘urban’ provinces were mainly in the north (in the former land of Akkad), and less in the south, where Ur seems to have been the most vital city. ‘Tribal’ provinces were mainly located in the area east of the Tigris. It is possible that, within the land, the traditional duties of the ‘governors’ were taking care of irrigation systems and temple architecture. In the provinces along the borders, these tasks were more military and governors had a more personal, rather than administrative, relationship with the king.\"§REF§(Liverani 2014, 462-463) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. <i>The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy</i>. London: Routledge. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/7DRZQS5Q/q/liverani</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 182, "polity": { "id": 478, "name": "iq_isin_larsa", "long_name": "Isin-Larsa", "start_year": -2004, "end_year": -1763 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "quasi-polity", "comment": null, "description": " \"The Ur III Empire broke up into a number of autonomous smaller states, controlling and fighting over other ancient cities.\"§REF§(McIntosh 2005: 84) McIntosh, J. 2005. <i>Ancient Mesopotamia: New Perspective</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC Clio. Seshat URL: <a class=\"external free\" href=\"https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD\" rel=\"nofollow\">https://www.zotero.org/groups/1051264/seshat_databank/items/itemKey/KK2E3KMD</a>.§REF§" }, { "id": 183, "polity": { "id": 106, "name": "iq_neo_assyrian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Assyrian Empire", "start_year": -911, "end_year": -612 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 184, "polity": { "id": 346, "name": "iq_neo_babylonian_emp", "long_name": "Neo-Babylonian Empire", "start_year": -626, "end_year": -539 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": " §REF§Vanderhooft, D.S. 1999. The Neo-Babylonian Empire and Babylon in the Latter Prophets. Harvard Semitic Museum Monographs 59. p.46§REF§" }, { "id": 185, "polity": { "id": 473, "name": "iq_ubaid", "long_name": "Ubaid", "start_year": -5500, "end_year": -4000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 186, "polity": { "id": 477, "name": "iq_ur_dyn_3", "long_name": "Ur - Dynasty III", "start_year": -2112, "end_year": -2004 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": "§REF§Szeląg 2007, 10§REF§<br>Inscriptions from time of Ur (Shu-Sin) suggest unity within internal land. \"the celebratory tone was not directed against Mesopotamian cities or other urbanised centres (such as the ones in Elam and Syria) anymore. The inscriptions rather focused on those turbulent 'barbarian' groups from the steppes and mountains, considered to be uncivilised and inhuman.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 159) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§" }, { "id": 187, "polity": { "id": 474, "name": "iq_uruk", "long_name": "Uruk", "start_year": -4000, "end_year": -2900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "SSP", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unknown", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 188, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": "Loose federation with irregular taxation under Cyrus and Cambyses with automomous satrapies. Relied on non-Persian officials and existing institutions.§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 131) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>After Darius put down rebellions he created the 'world empire'§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 131) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§ but under this system regions were still autonomous, the improvement was fixed system of tax collection based on surveys§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 132-133) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§ and an inspection regime.<br>Centralization occurred at the satrap level such as with codification of laws, and coinage. Before Darius trade was in barter or Lydian gold coins. Satraps could coin money but only King of Kings could coin in gold.§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 133) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§ Darius I developed a national script (Old Persian cuneiform)§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 126) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§ but seems to have been ceremonial and used by Persians, in satraps local languages used.<br>\"Prior to the Parthians, political systems in Southwest Asia were for the most part relatively loose confederations in which central government ruled their 'empires' through unstable alliances with vassals and satraps. Even Hammurabi, Darius, and Alexander were only temporarily successful in linking their centralized governments to local administrative institutions, particularly outside of the core areas of Greater Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 189, "polity": { "id": 107, "name": "ir_achaemenid_emp", "long_name": "Achaemenid Empire", "start_year": -550, "end_year": -331 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "comment": null, "description": "Loose federation with irregular taxation under Cyrus and Cambyses with automomous satrapies. Relied on non-Persian officials and existing institutions.§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 131) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§<br>After Darius put down rebellions he created the 'world empire'§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 131) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§ but under this system regions were still autonomous, the improvement was fixed system of tax collection based on surveys§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 132-133) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§ and an inspection regime.<br>Centralization occurred at the satrap level such as with codification of laws, and coinage. Before Darius trade was in barter or Lydian gold coins. Satraps could coin money but only King of Kings could coin in gold.§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 133) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§ Darius I developed a national script (Old Persian cuneiform)§REF§(Shahbazi 2012, 126) Shahbazi, A Shapour. The Archaemenid Persian Empire (550-330 BCE) Daryaee, Touraj. ed. 2012. The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press.§REF§ but seems to have been ceremonial and used by Persians, in satraps local languages used.<br>\"Prior to the Parthians, political systems in Southwest Asia were for the most part relatively loose confederations in which central government ruled their 'empires' through unstable alliances with vassals and satraps. Even Hammurabi, Darius, and Alexander were only temporarily successful in linking their centralized governments to local administrative institutions, particularly outside of the core areas of Greater Mesopotamia.\"§REF§(Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 190, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "comment": null, "description": "The Ak Koyunlu were \"a confederation of Turkman tribes\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§ \"Their political organization was loose.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 191, "polity": { "id": 508, "name": "ir_ak_koyunlu", "long_name": "Ak Koyunlu", "start_year": 1339, "end_year": 1501 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "loose", "comment": null, "description": "The Ak Koyunlu were \"a confederation of Turkman tribes\".§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§ \"Their political organization was loose.\"§REF§(Quiring-Zoche 2011) Quiring-Zoche, R. 2011. Aq Qoyunlu. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/aq-qoyunlu-confederation</a>§REF§<br>" }, { "id": 192, "polity": { "id": 487, "name": "ir_susiana_archaic", "long_name": "Susiana - Muhammad Jaffar", "start_year": -7000, "end_year": -6000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "quasi-polity", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 193, "polity": { "id": 495, "name": "ir_elam_1", "long_name": "Elam - Awan Dynasty I", "start_year": -2675, "end_year": -2100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "comment": null, "description": "Proto-Elamite reference says federal system especially in following period: \"The geography of Iran, with its fertile lands surrounded by mountains, or on the margins of the central deserts, favoured the rise of local political entitites. The latter would eventually unit in a sort of federal system (especially in the following period). Among these various local entities, Susiana remains a unique case, due to its exposure to Mesopotamian influences.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 91) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>first half of third millennium saw rise of powerful city-states in southern Mesopotamia.§REF§(Amiet, Chevalier and Carter 1992, 5) Amiet, Pierre. Chevalier, Nicole. Carter, Elizabeth. in Harper, Prudence O. Aruz, Joan. Tallon, Francoise. eds. 1992. The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.§REF§<br>\"The conquest of Susiana [by Akkadians] also altered the confederate structure of the Elamite state.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 132) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Established in the late fourth millennium B.C., the Elamite Empire was the first Iranian experience in empire building and state tradition. ... the federated state of Elam practiced public administration ... The federal system of Elam was composed of several major kingdoms (the Kassite, the Guti, the Lullubi, Susiana, and Elamite), all being of the same racial group of the pre-Aryan people.\"§REF§(Farazmand 2001, 535) Farazmand, Ali in Farazmand, Ali ed. 2001. Handbook of Comparative and Development Public Administration. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York.§REF§<br>Akkadian conquest: \"The conquest of Susiana also altered the confederate structure of the Elamite state.\"§REF§(Leverani 2014, 142) Liverani, Mario. Tabatabai, Soraia trans. 2014. The Ancient Near East. History, society and economy. Routledge. London.§REF§<br>\"Without exaggeration, the Elamite federated system of government can be considered as perhaps the earliest formal federalism on a large scale in history.\" §REF§(Farazmand 2009, 21-22) Farazmand, Ali. 2009. Bureaucracy and Administration. CRC Press. Boca Raton.§REF§" }, { "id": 194, "polity": { "id": 362, "name": "ir_buyid_confederation", "long_name": "Buyid Confederation", "start_year": 932, "end_year": 1062 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "comment": null, "description": " The Daylam State existed in a kind of military feudal system. The Dailamites were natural warriors and a military hierarchy had emerged which was used to rule the people under Buyid control. 'Ali b.Būya took confiscated land and gave it to his generals in lieu of payment. This system had a hereditary element.<br>The power system was further complicated by 'Ali b. Būya appointing his brothers as kings of areas of the empire. Rukn al-Daula ruled Isfahāhan and Ray. His coins suggest that he was sole ruler in this area since they contain only his name and the caliphs. Mu'izz al-Daula, the youngest brother, was placed in command of Buyid interests in Khūzistān, but only as a representative of 'Ali b. Būya. His coins contain his brother's name, as well as his own and the caliphs. Therefore, there existed a partially independent, partially hierarchical kingship system within the Daylam State. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran Under the Būyids. In Fyre, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.259§REF§<br>Furthermore, there existed the Caliphate in Baghdad. The Caliphate were considered religious leaders chosen by God to rule the Islamic world. They had political power by nature of their religious power. 'Ali b. Būya did not seek to overthrow the 'Abbāsid Calliph at Baghdad; instead he treated with him to gain recognition as viceroy, although he never paid the agreed tribute. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran Under the Būyids. In Fyre, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The Period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.256§REF§ Since the Buyid dynasty was in control of Baghdad it has been suggested the the calliph were the pawns of the Buyids. §REF§Katouzian, H. 2009. The Persians: Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Iran. London: Yale University Press. p.87§REF§ There continued to be several exchanges between the caliph and the ruler of the Daylam state to establish the state of power throughout the Buyid dynasty. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.277-78§REF§<br>Once 'Adud al-Daula had unified the Empire it existed as a confederated state with one ruler and was governed by a network of Buyid princes and other tribal leaders. There were also a number of vassal states which ruled themselves, though acknowledged the overlordship of the Buyids. §REF§Busse, H. 1975. Iran under the Būyids. In Frye, R. N. (ed.) The Cambridge History of Iran. Volume 4. The period from the Arab Invasion to the Saljuq's. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.270§REF§" }, { "id": 195, "polity": { "id": 502, "name": "ir_elam_8", "long_name": "Elam - Crisis Period", "start_year": -1100, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "quasi-polity", "comment": null, "description": " \"Although Elam did not maintain a political unity during these intervening centuries of obscurity, local chieftains must have preserved a semblance of control in areas where their authority had been traditionally exercised. Cameron suggests that local rule would probably have remained strongest in the remote Eastern districts of Elamite territories, sc. the region of modern Fars.\" §REF§(Hansman 1985, 30)§REF§ <span style=\"color:purple\">JR: This view may be changing. We asked Wouter Henkelman about the degree of centralization in Elam in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE as a whole. He told us that 'the ascending view is that Elam was an organised and centralised state up until the Assyrian invasions' (of the mid-7th century BCE).§REF§Henkelman 2016, personal communication.§REF§ For this reason, I've coded for scholarly disagreement.</span>" }, { "id": 196, "polity": { "id": 502, "name": "ir_elam_8", "long_name": "Elam - Crisis Period", "start_year": -1100, "end_year": -900 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "confederated state", "comment": null, "description": " \"Although Elam did not maintain a political unity during these intervening centuries of obscurity, local chieftains must have preserved a semblance of control in areas where their authority had been traditionally exercised. Cameron suggests that local rule would probably have remained strongest in the remote Eastern districts of Elamite territories, sc. the region of modern Fars.\" §REF§(Hansman 1985, 30)§REF§ <span style=\"color:purple\">JR: This view may be changing. We asked Wouter Henkelman about the degree of centralization in Elam in the first half of the 1st millennium BCE as a whole. He told us that 'the ascending view is that Elam was an organised and centralised state up until the Assyrian invasions' (of the mid-7th century BCE).§REF§Henkelman 2016, personal communication.§REF§ For this reason, I've coded for scholarly disagreement.</span>" }, { "id": 197, "polity": { "id": 507, "name": "ir_elymais_2", "long_name": "Elymais II", "start_year": 25, "end_year": 215 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": "\"Elymais' emergence as an independent state\"§REF§(Wenke 1981, 306) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§ 73 CE received a Parthian governor.§REF§(Wenke 1981, 310) Wenke, Robert J. 1981. Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 101. No. 3. Jul-Sep. American Oriental Society. pp. 303-315. <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.jstor.org/stable/602592</a>§REF§<br>\"The Greek city-states in Parthia were a survival from the Seleucid period. Under the Parthians they formally retained their autonomy\"§REF§(Koshelenko and Pilipko 1999, 146) Koshelenko, G A. Pilipko, V N. in Dani, Ahmad Hasan. 1999. History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.§REF§" }, { "id": 198, "polity": { "id": 486, "name": "ir_susiana_formative", "long_name": "Formative Period", "start_year": -7200, "end_year": -7000 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "quasi-polity", "comment": null, "description": null }, { "id": 199, "polity": { "id": 172, "name": "ir_il_khanate", "long_name": "Ilkhanate", "start_year": 1256, "end_year": 1339 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "unitary state", "comment": null, "description": " Ḡāzān had princes removed from power. §REF§REUVEN AMITAI, 'IL-KHANIDS i. DYNASTIC HISTORY' <a class=\"external free\" href=\"http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history\" rel=\"nofollow\">http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/il-khanids-i-dynastic-history</a>§REF§" }, { "id": 200, "polity": { "id": 489, "name": "ir_susiana_b", "long_name": "Susiana B", "start_year": -5700, "end_year": -5100 }, "year_from": null, "year_to": null, "tag": "TRS", "is_disputed": false, "is_uncertain": false, "name": "Polity_degree_of_centralization", "degree_of_centralization": "quasi-polity", "comment": null, "description": "Hajji Muhammad ware: \"The proposed usage for formal eating and drinking made them a desirable item for display purposes in a society that was, perhaps, beginning to see the emergence of a social hierarchy.\"§REF§(Crawford 2006, 167) Crawford, Harriet in Carter, Robert A. Philip, Graham. eds. 2006. Beyond The Ubaid. Transformation and integration in the late prehistoric societies of the Middle East. The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Illinois.§REF§<br>" } ] }